Sleep terror, also known as "night terror" in DSM-5 and "sleep terror disorder" in DSM-IV, is a sleep disorder where a person suddenly wakes up screaming, shouting, engaging in behaviors that may harm themselves or others (like running, jumping out of bed, trying to hit someone nearby), waking up crying, experiencing burning sensations in the face and hands, and increased autonomic responses like heart palpitations and fear. Sleep terror falls under the category of parasomnias, a subgroup of sleep disorders characterized by unwanted behaviors, physical, and neural arousals occurring during the transition from REM to NREM or during the NREM phase of sleep. Emotional, physical, and neural arousals are intensely experienced during sleep terror and can occur in the early stages of sleep or during the transition from REM to NREM. Although someone witnessing the person experiencing sleep terror may think they are awake and fully conscious, the person is not fully awake. They are usually only awakened by someone else forcibly bringing them out of this state. For these reasons, people who experience sleep terror often do not remember the events of the night, or the events may seem distorted and confusing to them. Therefore, those who suffer from sleep terror may experience physical and emotional strain.

Sleep terror typically emerges during childhood and usually ends during adolescence. The prevalence of sleep terror in children aged 4-12 is around 3%, while in adults, this rate drops to 1%. The onset of sleep terror for the first time in adulthood is rare. However, when cases of adult sleep terror are examined in the literature, it is clear that the intensity, prevalence, and development of treatment strategies are of critical importance.

What Causes Sleep Terror?

There is no clear cause of sleep terror. However, research has shown that genetic factors play a role. Individuals with primary relatives who have parasomnias are more likely to experience sleep terror compared to those without a family history of such disorders. Additionally, it is believed that in children, the fact that the central nervous system is not yet fully developed and is still in the process of developing may trigger this disorder. Moreover, if a person has diagnosed mental disorders (such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder), these can also contribute to the occurrence of sleep terror. As with all psychological disorders, it is important to approach sleep terror from a biopsychosocial perspective.

What is the Differential Diagnosis of Sleep Terror

Sleep terror can often be confused with nightmare disorder, another subtype of parasomnia, due to its characteristic features. Therefore, in cases of sleep disorders like sleep terror, anamnesis should be taken very carefully, details should be noted, and the family history should be examined. In nightmare disorder, the individual is in REM sleep, and there are no issues with consciousness upon awakening. Additionally, the individual can usually recall the content of their nightmares afterward. This is not usually the case with sleep terror, where motor activities are also observed.

It should be noted that a disorder called REM Sleep Behavior Disorder, which is not listed in DSM but is included in ICD-3, can also be confused with sleep terror. However, REM Sleep Behavior Disorder typically occurs in adults and is characterized by disproportionate violent behavior, making it more of a motor sleep disorder. Additionally, there is a possibility of comorbidity in individuals who experienced sleep terror during childhood.

How is Sleep Terror Treated?

There is no definitive treatment for this disorder. Initially, ensuring a safe sleep environment is crucial. The person's room should be free of objects that could cause self-harm, and during a sleep terror episode, they should not be forcibly awakened. The person should be calmed and allowed to regain full consciousness. It is important not to approach someone who is already experiencing intense, involuntary fear with loud noises or fear. Psychological education on sleep-wake cycles can be beneficial, and the individual may seek help from a professional to establish a proper sleep routine. If the frequency of sleep terror episodes is low, the methods mentioned above are commonly applied. However, in cases where sleep terror is frequent and severe, psychopharmacotherapy may be considered. In such cases, antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) may be prescribed. Although anxiolytic medications, such as benzodiazepines, might seem suitable initially due to the anxiety-inducing nature of the condition, these drugs carry a high risk of dependence because of their pleasant effects on the brain. Consequently, it has been observed that people who stop taking benzodiazepines may experience more severe sleep terror attacks.

References

Algın, D., Akdağ, G., & Erdinç, O. (2016). Quality sleep and sleep disorders. Osmangazi Tıp Dergisi, 38(1), 29-34. https://doi.org/10.20515/otd.40263
Keskin, N., & Tamam, L. (2018). Sleep disorders: Classification and treatment. Arşiv Kaynak Tarama Dergisi, 27(2), 241-260. https://doi.org/10.17827/aktd.346010
Küçük, F., & Eryılmaz, S. E. (2023). Sleep Problems and Evidence-Based Practices. In Sağlık & Bilim 2023: Çocuk Hemşireliğinde Kanıta Dayalı Uygulamalar (pp. 67-81). Efe Akademi. https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=YAW4EAAAQBAJ&lpg=PA67&ots=RsXJj_-J5F&dq=uyku%20ter%C3%B6r%C3%BC&lr&hl=tr&pg=PA70#v=onepage&q=uyku%20ter%C3%B6r%C3%BC&f=false
Tütüncü, M., Şenel, G. B., Zeydan, B., Karadeniz, D., & Apaydın, H. (2018). Relationship Between Sleep-related Violence and NREM Parasomnia: A Case Report. Journal of Turkish Sleep Medicine, 5(2), 46. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328287590_Relationship_Between_Sleep-related_Violence_and_NREM_Parasomnia_A_Case_Report
Sodan Turan, H., Gündüz, N., Polat Işık, A. Ö., & Tural, Ü. (2015). Sleep Terror and Treatment Approach in Two Cases. Nöropsikiyatri Arşivi, 52(2), 204-206. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280324401_IKI_OLGU_OZELINDE_UYKU_TERORU_ve_TEDAVI_YAKLASIMI

The Stages of Sleep
The stages of sleep are determined by parameters used to measure the brain's electrical activity, such as EEG. Sleep is divided into two main phases based on its characteristics: REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep and NREM sleep (Non-Rapid Eye Movement). REM sleep is also known as fast sleep, while NREM sleep is known as slow sleep. NREM sleep is further divided into four stages: stages 1 and 2 are considered light/superficial sleep, while stages 3 and 4 are known as deep sleep.

Stage 1: This is a short stage, lasting an average of 5-7 minutes, where we transition from wakefulness to sleep. Many people subjectively feel awake during this stage. Mental processes begin to change, and thoughts are not prolonged. Breathing is slow and regular, while heart rate decreases. It constitutes 5-10% of the total sleep duration.

Stage 2: This is a deeper phase of sleep compared to stage 1. Muscles are relaxed, and very little bodily movement is observed. It constitutes 40-50% of total sleep, making it a significant portion.

Stages 3 and 4 (Deep Sleep): In these stages, it is harder to wake the individual, and stronger stimuli are needed to do so. Physiological activity and metabolic processes slow down. One of the most well-known features of deep sleep is the increase in growth hormone secretion. The depth of sleep gradually decreases as we transition to the REM phase.

REM Sleep: Characterized by rapid eye movements, signals are sent to voluntary muscles, such as the arms, to relax them and prevent activation. This phenomenon is known as "muscle atonia." Most individuals awakened during this stage remember their dreams. It can be said that the NREM phase is related to physical renewal, while the REM phase is linked to mental renewal. In an adult, the REM phase, together with the NREM phase, repeats approximately every 90 minutes.

Sleep and Stress
The relationship between sleep and stress is reciprocal. It has been observed that individuals with high levels of perceived stress experience a decline in sleep quality and difficulty falling asleep. A decrease in sleep quality and insomnia can, in turn, trigger stress responses. Insomnia can negatively impact the body's stress response mechanism (HPA axis). As a result, this condition can lead to psychological and physiological problems in daily life, causing more stress.

Sleep Deprivation Experiments
Insomnia brings with it many physiological and psychological problems. Our immune system is negatively affected, making us more vulnerable to bacteria and viruses. Along with sleep deprivation, we begin to experience difficulties in cognitive processes such as memory, attention, and decision-making. We may struggle to communicate with others, our ability to empathize may weaken, and we may become more prone to psychological issues such as depression and anxiety. The importance of sleep and the question of what happens if we don't sleep have puzzled many researchers. As a result, sleep deprivation experiments have been conducted on animals such as rats and humans. Perhaps one of the most attention-grabbing experiments is that of Peter Tripp, who remained awake for 200 hours.

Peter Tripp
Peter Tripp was a man who worked as a DJ on a radio station in the U.S. in 1959. Tripp wanted to break the world record for the longest time spent awake and decided to stay awake while broadcasting on the radio. This decision drew the interest of the scientific community and doctors. During this period, Tripp's brain activity was recorded using an EEG device, and the 200-hour experiment began with Tripp under observation. Tripp didn't experience much trouble during the first 24 hours, but soon after, his gaze started to change, and he became more tense and cautious towards his surroundings. He could no longer regulate his body temperature. When he needed a shave, they brought his barber to the radio station, but Tripp didn't recognize him and chased him away. Shortly after, Tripp suddenly ran outside and started chasing cars. In the later hours, he began talking to himself and seeing hallucinations. When the EEG results were examined, the outcome was surprising: Tripp was dreaming—his brain was producing dream activities while he was awake!

Tripp eventually slept at the end of these eight days, but he had transformed into a more restless and tense man. He even lost both his job and his wife.

Sleep Hygiene
We probably all understand the importance of sleep by now. So how can we improve our sleep quality? The term sleep hygiene refers to behaviors that facilitate falling asleep and enhance sleep quality. So what are these behaviors, and how can we sleep better?

Exercise: Exercise, which has many benefits for both physical and mental health, will also help you fall asleep at the end of the day.

Nutrition: What we eat affects our bodies, and digestive issues can also impact our ability to fall asleep. Drinking a warm glass of milk before bed may help you fall asleep.

Caffeine: Caffeine blocks a receptor in the brain called "adenosine." Adenosine is associated with the feeling of sleepiness. Therefore, blocking this receptor makes it harder for us to fall asleep. This is how our beloved coffees keep us awake. For a more restful sleep, you can opt for herbal teas instead of caffeine.

Don't linger in bed: Shorten the time you spend in bed, and wake up at the same time every day. If you can't sleep, don't stay in bed for too long. Instead, you can read a book or engage in activities that relax you, like drinking chamomile tea.

SWEET DREAMS

REFERENCES

1. Đbrahim Hakkı, B. O. R. A., & BĐCAN, A. (2007). Uyku fizyolojisi. Turkiye Klinikleri J Surg Med Sci, 3(23), 1-6.
2. Saygın, M., & Özgüner, M. (2020). Uykunun mikro yapısı ve mimarisi. Uyku Bülteni, 1(1), 19-29.
3. Erdoğan, D. G., & Cingöz, F. Uykunun Fizyolojisi ve Stresle İlişkisi. Academic Developments on Health Sciences, 57-62.
4. Yüksel, A. (2018). Yaşlanma ve Uyku Fizyolojisi. Kılavuz, S. Savaş, & F. Akçiçek içinde: Yaşlı Fizyolojisi. Us Akademi, 223-237.
5. Ahlheim, H. (2013). Uyanıklık Dünyasını Yönetmek: “Uyanık Kalma Adamları”nın Yardımıyla Uyanıklık, Performans ve Beyin Aktivitesinin Keşfi (1884–1964). Bilinç Antropolojisi , 24 (2), 117-136.
6. Jan JE, Reiter RJ, Bax MC, Ribary U, Freeman RD, Wasdell MB. Long-term sleep disturbances in children: a cause of neuronal loss. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2010;14(5):380-390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2010.05.001

What is Clinical Psychology? Who is a Clinical Psychologist? What Are the Differences Between a Clinical Psychologist and a Psychiatrist?

The field of clinical psychology focuses on emotional, psychological, physiological, social, and behavioral aspects of the human experience. Individuals who have graduated from a four-year psychology program at a university and have completed a master's degree in clinical psychology receive the title of clinical psychologist. Clinical psychologists are specialists who apply psychological tests, conduct observations, and provide psychotherapy in numerous psychological cases, particularly in cases of adjustment disorders.

Psychiatrists, on the other hand, are medical graduates, meaning they are doctors, who obtain the title of psychiatrist after receiving six years of medical education followed by four years of specialized training in psychiatry. Due to their medical training, psychiatrists have the authority to prescribe and recommend medications, whereas clinical psychologists are authorized to conduct psychotherapy.

Since early times, there have been significant developments in the field of mental health. In ancient times, individuals with mental health problems were ostracized and labeled as "witches" or "possessed by demons" and executed, but today, the causes of mental disorders are being investigated, and efforts are made to treat and heal individuals suffering from these disorders. Previously, individuals had to live under inhumane conditions in facilities like the Bedlam mental asylum, but today, interventions are applied in mental health hospitals and clinics where ethical standards and human rights are observed.

Psychological and Biological Interventions in Mental Health Treatment

Psychotherapies: Psychotherapy is the process of establishing a therapeutic alliance between a therapist and a client, with the aim of understanding the client and helping them feel better. The treatment we refer to in psychology is psychotherapy. As a result of the therapeutic alliance established between the client and the therapist during the psychotherapy process, an improvement in the client's mental health occurs. For this process to be considered psychotherapy, it must be conducted by a qualified specialist and grounded in specific theories. In psychotherapy, the client is neither judged nor criticized. This is one of the fundamental aspects that distinguishes psychotherapy from regular friendship support. The expert conducting the psychotherapy selects a therapeutic school based on the theory that they believe will best benefit the client. Each school has its own theoretical foundation and practical methods within that theoretical framework. The psychotherapeutic approaches with proven effectiveness in mental health therapies are as follows:

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): This approach posits that a person's emotions, thoughts, and behaviors are interconnected, and that dysfunctional behavior patterns and inappropriate emotions are generally sustained by dysfunctional cognitive thoughts. The primary goal is to replace dysfunctional thoughts with realistic ones. It is believed that this change in thinking will help the individual evaluate reality correctly and as it is, which in turn will help them develop the ability to control their behavior and emotions. Both the client and the therapist play active roles in the session. Techniques such as stimulus control, systematic exposure, social skills training, and coping techniques are used to show the client that they have the maturity and skills to control themselves and solve their own problems. Today, this is the most widely used approach in clinics.

Note: In no psychotherapy method is the client directly guided. The therapy process is like navigating a ship in a stormy sea. The client is the captain of the ship. The therapist accompanies the client in this journey, helping them realize they have the strength to cope with the waves and ensuring the client does not feel alone.

Psychodynamic Therapy: This therapeutic approach is based on Freud's psychoanalytic theory, who is considered the first psychotherapist, and has evolved over time. It argues that the root of mental disorders lies in negative experiences during early childhood. The first six years of life are considered critical, and it is believed that the traumatic experiences during this period will guide us in adulthood. The technique of free association is actively used. Practitioners believe that every thought flowing through the client's mind is important and has a cause. Psychodynamic therapy generally takes longer than CBT, and within this approach, the therapist is less active compared to CBT therapists. This approach has faced criticism due to its emphasis on sexuality and its focus on the first six years of life. Its effectiveness in treating mental disorders is harder to prove and is generally lower. It is the second most commonly used approach in clinics after CBT.

Other Psychotherapeutic Approaches: There are numerous other psychotherapeutic methods such as dialectical therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, and existential therapy. In this article, focusing on the two most commonly used approaches (CBT and psychodynamic therapy) is more productive for the flow of the text. Other therapeutic approaches also incorporate elements of CBT and psychodynamic therapy but differ from each other in terms of the methods they use. As mentioned in the note above, the goal in each approach is for the client to develop the skills to solve their own problems and to manage the connection between their emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in a healthy way.

Biological Methods

While it is believed that emotions and thoughts are the basis of mental illnesses and problems, another factor contributing to the emergence of these emotions and thoughts is the human body. Hormones, the brain, chromosomal anomalies... Many biological and physiological factors play a role in the emergence and persistence of mental disorders. For instance, research has shown that a deficiency in norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter responsible for communication between neurons in the nervous system, predisposes a person to depression, while an excess predisposes them to bipolar disorder. Therefore, it has been observed that the causes of mental health disorders can also be biological and physiological, based on biological data such as norepinephrine's role in mood regulation, lithium deficiency in individuals with bipolar disorder, and sensitivity to dopamine receptors in individuals with ADHD. It has also been noted that other neurotransmitters, brain regions, and systems influence or may influence mental health. As a result, pharmacotherapy using antidepressant medications like SSRIs and MAOIs, and psychobiological treatment methods like ECT (Electroconvulsive Therapy) and TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation) are frequently used, especially in treating conditions such as bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and depression.

Pharmacotherapy: It is known that imbalances in neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, noradrenaline, and dopamine or sensitivity in receptors related to these neurotransmitters contribute to mental disorders such as anxiety disorders, depression, ADHD, and bipolar disorder and exacerbate the severity of symptoms. The combined use of antidepressants and antipsychotics along with psychotherapy can be highly effective in reducing these effects and helping the patient regain functionality.

ECT and TMS: These techniques involve applying electrical currents to specific regions of the brain to stimulate brain cells and increase activity in certain areas. The electric current is applied in a controlled and ethical manner without harming the patient. ECT and TMS are frequently used in treating depression.

In conclusion, psychology and psychiatry, relatively new fields of science, continue to evolve and uncover new information every day. With biological and psychological interventions applied ethically and with respect to individual rights and consent, efforts are made to treat and heal mental disorders.

Mother-Daughter Relationship 

From the beginning of the film, we see that Erica is a mother who is bossy and sees Nina as a little girl who depends on her mother. Nina's room is filled with toys just like a little girl's room. Her mother suppresses Nina and makes Nina be as she wants, depending on herself. Erica doesn't seem to want Nina to grow up and become independent. Nina and her mother's social lives and circles also seem to be quite low. Even in the house, even in the bathroom, Nina's mother is in control. Although Nina is very uncomfortable with her mother's attitude and pressures, she cannot make her voice out and feels anxious and guilty as soon as she gets out of her mother's control.

Relationship With Her Teacher

Another factor that triggers Nina's relationship with her teacher Thomas in the film is Thomas, who is the director of the show and her teacher. Thomas is aware that Nina is always controlling and strives for perfection. For this reason, he is reluctant to make Nina a queen ballerina. However, when Nina came to her room to ask her for the role, Nina's aggression was first seen when Nina bit her lip while kissing her, and she decided that she should give Nina a chance at the role. Nina's sexual attraction to Thomas and her closeness to him throughout the film was an important trigger for Nina's revelation of her alter identity (second identity) by freeing herself from the pressure on her with the discovery of her sexuality. With the selection of Nina for the role of the black swan, Nina's anxieties and hallucinations increase and her neuroses begin to appear as psychotic patterns of thought and behavior. For example, he begins to experience hallucinations and depersonalizations, such as when his finger bleeds.

Relationship With Lily

Nina's relationship with Lily is almost a white swan with her purity, innocence, and integration with perfection. Lily, on the other hand, is a sensual, natural ballerina who does not have any worries about perfection. Therefore, it is quite ideal for the role of a black swan. Nina's most important rival to become a queen ballerina is Lily.

Turning Point

As for the scene that is the turning point of the film, Nina had an argument with her mother and went out with Lily for the first time out of her control. While spending time with her, at Lily's suggestion, Nina used substances, which triggered a clear revelation of Nina's pathologies. Personality divisions are being triggered. 

In the following scenes, we see that Nina is now saying goodbye to the white swan and starting to reveal the black swan inside her. He's getting more and more aggressive. She doesn't want to be the pure and innocent white swan controlled by her mother. He starts throwing toys, locking his door, and physically harming his mother.

Nina had delusions such as plucking her back and bleeding her finger, as well as auditory hallucinations, such as talking pictures of her mother. The night when these hallucinations and delusions are most pronounced is the night before the show when he argues with his mother. Nina could see that her feet had turned into the feet of a swan, and that wing feathers had come out on her back.

Her mother, realizing that her role as the black swan was hurting Nina, tried to prevent her from going on the show and told Thomas that Nina would not go on the show. However, Nina had gone to the show, surpassing her mother. We see that fight scene, which is one of the reactionary scenes of the film when Nina hallucinates that the role has been given to Lily. Nina hides him, thinking that he killed Lily, and goes to the stage. When she comes on stage, we see that Nina made a mistake when performing the role of the white swan, which she identifies with, which she should have performed perfectly. Because Nina is no longer a white swan, she has become a black swan. When he Comes to his room between scenes, he realizes that he didn't actually kill Lily and that he actually hurt himself during the hallucination he saw. Nina thinks that she really turned into a black swan when performing the role of a black swan in the second act, and she considers herself a real black swan.  

Last Scene

In the last scene, the show ends with the white swan admitting that he was defeated by the black swan and committing suicide. With this symbolic expression, we can say that as a result of Nina's battle with the black swan in her inner world, the white swan inside her was defeated by the black swan. When he thought he killed Lily, he actually killed himself. The last sentence is ‘I felt it, it was perfect’. Thus, Nina lost her life on the stage she loved so much for the sake of achieving perfection and getting the role of the black swan.

Theories of Love
Love and affection have similar definitions, with love often seen as an intense emotional
attachment to someone or something. Many researchers and psychologists have attempted to
understand love, creating various theories throughout history. Fromm builds upon these
theories, proposing that love is an answer to the problem of human existence, defining it as
"the active concern for the life and the growth of that which we love".

Types of Love According to Fromm
Fromm identifies several types of love, each with unique characteristics:

1.Brotherly Love: Brotherly love is universal and not confined to one person. It is
rooted in the belief that all humans are equal and involves a sense of solidarity and
unity with all of humanity. This type of love is the foundation for all other forms of
love and is exemplified by the biblical injunction to "love thy neighbour as thyself".

2. Motherly Love: This form of love is unconditional and selfless, primarily
characterized by the giving and nurturing of a child. It is not reciprocal, as the mother
gives without expecting anything in return, creating a profound and enduring bond.

3. Erotic Love: Unlike the previous types, erotic love is exclusive and involves a desire
for complete fusion with another person. However, Fromm warns that this type of
love can be the most deceptive, often conflating intense passion with genuine
affection. It is inherently fragile and usually short-lived.

4. Self-Love: Contrary to popular belief, Fromm argues that self-love is not selfishness.
He posits that one cannot truly love others without first loving oneself; drawing from
Meister Eckhart's idea that self-love enhances the capacity to love others.

5. Love of God: This form of love emerges from the need to overcome the feeling of
separateness and achieve unity with a higher power. Fromm notes that one's love for
God often reflects the maturity of their faith and their relationship with their own
parents.

6. False Love: Fromm also identifies forms of false love, which might involve idealization or an intense but superficial attachment. These relationships are marked by sudden beginnings and are often fragile and empty. 

7. Practicing Love: Fromm transitions from theory to practice, emphasizing that love is a personal experience requiring active engagement. He draws parallels between learning to love and mastering an art such as music or carpentry, necessitating l dedication, concentration, and discipline. According to Fromm, mastering the art of love demands effort and perseverance, much like any other professional skill.

Conclusion Erich Fromm's examination of love provides a comprehensive framework for
understanding the complexity of human emotions and relationships. By viewing love as an
art, he underscores the importance of active effort and personal growth in cultivating genuine
affection and connection with others.

References
Fromm, E. (1985). The Art of Loving. (Trans. I. Gunduz). Istanbul: Say Publications.

Social learning theory emphasizes that students gain knowledge and skills through interaction. In line with this theory, schools should create environments that can increase the interaction of students with each other. For example, activities such as group studies, joint projects, and discussion groups can help students develop skills such as working together, leadership, and empathy. Such activities allow students to express themselves and find solutions to problems together, while at the same time contributing to the creation of a culture of social solidarity and cooperation.

Constructivist Learning Approach

Constructivist learning encourages students to build their own knowledge structures and deepen them through interactive learning processes. This approach emphasizes the active participation of students and learning together. Teachers can help students direct their own learning processes by planning lessons and guiding students in a way that supports the constructivist approach. In this process, values such as mutual respect, cooperation, and information sharing between students are strengthened Decently.

 The Role of the Education System

The education system can adopt various strategies to promote social solidarity and cooperation:

Programs and Activities: Educational programs should provide students with opportunities to improve their cooperation and communication skills. In this context, applications such as group projects, collaborative problem-solving activities, and simulations encourage the active participation of students.

School Culture and Environment: Schools should provide an environment in which positive social relationships can be established between students. This environment encourages students to understand and support each other, while at the same time improving their ability to evaluate diversity and different points of view.

Teacher Education: Teachers should be trained in strategies that will develop a culture of cooperation and solidarity in the classroom. The role of teachers is of critical importance in creating positive group dynamics among students. In this context, teachers' Deconfliction management skills and competencies on strengthening inter-student relations should be developed.

The topic we are dealing with in this article emphasizes the critical role of the education system in strengthening social values. Social learning theory and constructivist learning approaches can help students not only to acquire knowledge but also to acquire critical social skills such as cooperation, empathy, and leadership. In this way, our education system can raise more inclusive and socially strong individuals, and provide an environment that supports social solidarity and cooperation.

Hypnosis And Hypnotherapy

Hypnosis derives its name from Hypnos, the god of sleep in Greek mythology. Hypnos is the twin brother of Thanatos, the god of death, and the father of Morpheus, the god of dreams. Hypnos puts people to sleep by touching their foreheads, fanning his wings, or sprinkling them with magical dust. His power is not limited to humans; it can even affect the gods. Although hypnosis takes its name from the god of sleep, it is not a state of sleep but rather a state of consciousness between sleep and wakefulness.

The American Psychological Association (APA) defines hypnosis as "a treatment technique in which clinicians make suggestions to individuals through a procedure designed to promote relaxation and focused attention." The World Health Organization (WHO) published the "WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy: 2002-2005" booklet in 2002. Here, hypnosis is classified in the category of alternative medicine under the group of "mind-body therapies." In hypnosis, the individual is in a relaxed state with focused attention and heightened suggestibility. Hypnotherapy involves using this concentration and the relaxed state of the mind to treat the individual with relevant suggestions. Hypnotherapy was recognized as a psychotherapeutic method by the British Medical Association in 1953 and by the American Medical Association in 1958. In Turkey, the use of hypnosis techniques in practice is approved by the Ministry of Health as a treatment method.

A Brief History of Hypnosis

Hypnosis has been a subject of various perspectives for centuries. For instance, in ancient times, hypnosis was used as part of religious rituals, whereas in the early days of Christianity, it was seen as a form of witchcraft. By the late 18th century, with the influence of Franz Anton Mesmer's work—often considered the father of modern hypnotherapy—it began to be viewed as a therapeutic method. Jean-Martin Charcot, who also mentored Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, was interested in hypnosis. However, unlike others, Charcot considered the spasms and convulsions observed under hypnosis as diagnostic criteria for hysteria. Charcot viewed susceptibility to hypnosis as a mental weakness, whereas physician and neurologist Hippolyte Bernheim disagreed with Charcot’s view that the hypnotic state was a criterion for hysteria. According to Bernheim, the hypnotic state is not a pathological condition and can be induced through suggestion. He used hypnosis, grounded in suggestion, to treat nervous system diseases, rheumatism, digestive issues, and menstrual disorders.

Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, was also interested in hypnosis and saw it as a pipeline to the unconscious. However, Freud soon recognized the limitations of hypnosis, such as not all patients responding to it and its inadequacy in providing lasting recovery. He abandoned hypnosis in favor of his free association technique. Despite ongoing differing views on hypnosis, many experts today agree on its efficacy in treating various disorders.

Hypnotherapy And The Treatment Of Psychopathologies

Hypnosis is used for purposes like anesthesia, analgesia, and reducing anxiety in dentistry and many medical fields. Besides these areas, the benefits of hypnotherapy in treating many psychopathologies have been proven. Hypnotherapy has various uses, including ego strengthening, relaxation, imagination, enhancing focus, and alleviating somatic symptoms. Some of the uses of hypnotherapy in treating specific psychopathologies can be summarized as follows:

· Strengthening the ego to treat Depression, Anxiety, various Phobic Disorders, and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.

· Overcoming addictions such as smoking and drugs.

· Treating Obesity and Eating Disorders and reducing the Depression and Anxiety caused by these conditions.

· Using systematic desensitization, reliving traumatic events, and controlling flashbacks to treat Acute Stress Disorder, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and Dissociative Disorders.

· Treating Sexual Disorders by promoting relaxation, reducing anxiety, and strengthening the ego.

· Treating Tic Disorders by promoting relaxation and reducing anxiety.

· Enhancing focus and promoting behavior modification in the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

Hypnotherapy can be applied alone or in conjunction with medication, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), and similar treatment methods. A 2022 study (Bulut, Gökkaya, and Emeç) investigated the relationship between hypnotherapy and depression, anxiety, stress, and life satisfaction. Participants received hypnotherapy sessions once a week for five weeks, each session lasting an hour. The results showed a statistically significant decrease in the participants' stress, depression, and anxiety scores and a positive effect on life satisfaction.

It is known that stress is a common predictor of anxiety and depression and negatively affects life satisfaction. Considering that hypnotherapy may be shorter in duration and more cost-effective than medication, its potential for treating stress and related psychopathologies is quite appealing.

As seen, hypnosis plays a significant role in medicine and the treatment of psychological disorders. Besides these fields, hypnosis is also used in forensic processes, such as obtaining statements from witnesses and victims. However, this use of hypnosis is controversial due to its legal issues and certain risks, such as the possibility of the hypnotized person recounting an event they did not experience and filling in gaps themselves. Despite these risks and ongoing debates, including ethical concerns, hypnosis continues to maintain its allure today. Along with its intrigue and mystery, its benefits and potential in various fields, including medicine and psychology, highlight the importance of hypnosis.

References

1.      Ağargün MH. (2012). Hipnoz ve hipnoterapi. Sağlık Düşüncesi ve Tıp Kültürü Dergisi, 22: 62-63.

2.      Öztürk, A. Ö., Öztürk, G. (2019). Tıbbi Hipnozun Klinik Uygulamaları. J BiotechnolandStrategic Healthres. 2019;3(Özel Sayı):119-130 DOI: Bshr.554710.

3.      Bulut, M. A., Gökkaya, F. ve Emeç, K. (2022). Hipnoterapinin Depresyon, Kaygı, Stres ve Yaşam Doyumu Üzerindeki Etkisinin İncelenmesi, Sosyal, Beşeri ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 5(1): 28-43.

4.      Dumanlı, Ö., Karadeniz D. ve Hancı, İ. H., Adli Hipnoz. Seçkin Yayıncılık, ISBN: 978-975- 02-3543-6, 2015.

5.      Gönce, M. N. Sigara Bağımlılığının Tedavisinde Hipnoz Kullanımı: AUCH Tekniği. Avrasya Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi, 3(2), 69-76.

In dissociative disorder considered normal, the individual continues to feel connected with others and the environment. These individuals do not worry about forgetfulness and can recall their occasional forgetfulness by following contextual clues. However, the situation is different at the clinical level. Individuals at this level feel completely disconnected from people around them and their environment, and they experience alienation from their current situation. Clinically, they experience deficiencies in insight regarding their identity and changing life conditions, or they face severe and recurrent episodes of amnesia, fugue, and identity confusion, indicating a cognitive disconnection (Selvi, 2022; 258).

Dissociative disorders include dissociative identity disorder, dissociative amnesia, and depersonalization/derealization disorder. This article will describe all three types.

1.      DISSOCIATIVE IDENTITY DISORDER

Dissociative identity disorder was formerly known as multiple personality disorder. In this disorder, the individual exhibits at least two distinct identity states. These new identity types, known as "alter identities," emerge suddenly and can temporarily take control of the individual's primary identity. This leads the individual to exhibit behaviors and attitudes different from their usual self. The number of these alter identities can be numerous, and they may have different characteristics, preferences, thought patterns, and accents. Additionally, alter identities can vary in age and gender. Most individuals with dissociative identity disorder cannot recall the period when the alter identities were dominant, although some have awareness of these identity transitions (Selvi, 2022; 259).

There are ongoing debates and uncertainties in the literature regarding some aspects of this disorder. The current diagnostic criteria used today are provided below.

DSM-5 DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA

A.    Disruptions in identity characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality states. The disruption in identity involves marked discontinuity in the sense of self and sense of agency, accompanied by related alterations in affect, behavior, consciousness, memory, perception, cognition, and/or sensory-motor functioning, which may be observed by the individual or others.

B.     Recurrent gaps in the recall of everyday events, important personal information, and/or traumatic events that are inconsistent with ordinary forgetting.

C.    The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

D.    The disturbance is not a normal part of a broadly accepted cultural or religious practice, and the symptoms are not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance or another medical condition (Selvi, 2022; 260).

2.      DISSOCIATIVE AMNESIA

Dissociative amnesia is a severe form of forgetting important personal information, which is different from everyday forgetfulness. Individuals with this condition may forget family members, their place of residence, or even their own names. This memory loss typically follows a traumatic or stressful event. These individuals often appear confused, bewildered, and aimless. Dissociative amnesia usually emerges suddenly and also ends suddenly. The duration can range from a few minutes to several hours, and memory typically returns within a week.

Dissociative amnesia is detailed in four types: localized amnesia (failure to recall events that occurred within a specific period), selective amnesia (inability to remember certain details of an event), generalized amnesia (loss of memory for one's entire life), and continuous amnesia (failure to recall events following a specific time up to and including the present).

In addition to dissociative amnesia, individuals may experience dissociative fugue. These individuals forget personal information and abruptly leave their homes or workplaces. They may assume a new identity and start a new life. It is crucial to note that dissociative fugue does not involve conscious motivation. It should not be assumed that the individual consciously escapes and avoids recognition. In the latest DSM edition, this topic is addressed under dissociative amnesia rather than as a separate category

DSM-5 DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA

A.    An inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, that is inconsistent with ordinary forgetting.

B.     The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

C.     The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance or a neurological or other medical condition.

D.    The disturbance is not better explained by dissociative identity disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, acute stress disorder, somatic symptom disorder, or major/mild neurocognitive disorder (Selvi, 2022; 262).

Note: If wandering or seemingly purposeful travel occurs, it is specified as dissociative fugue; otherwise, it is classified as non-fugue amnesia (Selvi, 2022; 262).

3.      DEPERSONALIZATION/DEREALIZATION DISORDER

People are known to perceive and feel their bodies as a whole. In depersonalization, individuals feel that their identity and body are separated, and they observe their body and behaviors as if from outside. They become alienated from their own emotions, thoughts, and bodily sensations, feeling that these are not their own.

In derealization, individuals feel detached from their surroundings and the external world, experiencing it as unreal. They may feel as if they are in a dream, with altered perceptions of objects and sounds. Individuals with this disorder may experience both conditions or just one. Despite the subtle difference between these two states, a significant distinction from other dissociative disorders is the absence of memory loss. According to APA, individuals with this disorder are aware that their experiences are not real.

DSM-5 DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA

A.    The presence of persistent or recurrent experiences of depersonalization, derealization, or both.

B.     During the depersonalization or derealization experiences, reality testing remains intact.

C.    The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

D.    The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance or another medical condition.

E.     The disturbance is not better explained by another mental disorder, such as schizophrenia, panic disorder, major depressive disorder, acute stress disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, or another dissociative disorder (Selvi; 2022; 263).

TREATMENT OF DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS

Psychotherapy Applications: Although treating dissociative disorders with psychotherapy is challenging, studies show that this therapeutic approach can effectively improve symptoms. It isn't easy to make a conclusive statement about the efficacy and content of these applications. There are more psychotherapy applications related to dissociative identity disorder.

Psychopharmacological Treatments: Medications are not the first choice for treating dissociative experiences, as they do not eliminate dissociative experiences. These medications are generally used to treat mood disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, and other conditions that co-occur with dissociative disorders, helping to regulate the emotional fluctuations common among patients with dissociative disorders (Selvi; 2022; 265).

REFERENCES:

Selvi, K. (2022). Disosiyatif bozukluklar ve bedensel belirti bozuklukları. Tuna E. ve Ö. Öncül Demir (ed.) DSM-5’ E Göre Anormal psikoloji. (2;258-260). Nobel Yayıncılık.

Maslow referred to the reasons for running away from the tasks that people have in their lives, suggesting that they are caused by a fear of taking responsibility, gaining success, or growing up. We can see today's examples as follows: making up an excuse not to study a lesson that could be done if it was working, going late to a job interview that could be chosen if it was on time, or dealing with the phone so as not to start a job that could be finished if it started …

Maslow has devoted the last step of the Hierarchy of Needs pyramid to self-realization and argued that it is possible to reach this step through an individual's self-awareness, awareness of their responsibilities, and acquisition of various skills. The individuals who can realize these things will have realized themselves, but according to the Jonah Complex, there may be some negative feelings and thoughts besides the beautiful developments such as feeling good, the pleasure of success, Junking recognition, appreciation, or applause that this last step brings. Maybe it sounds incredible, but the greater expectations, responsibilities, continuities that people assume as a result of success, and anxiety/fear of the unknown are the main sources of the complex. Why should individuals stop themselves from doing something they are successful at? Very successful individuals can stand out by excelling in the environment in which he is located, which can lead them to exclusion or even isolation. On the other hand,  successful individuals will need to make an effort to have a new style in order to keep up with a new environment in the process, to master a new environment, and perhaps to keep up with this environment. In other words, being afraid of both change and innovation may be the most intense feeling of the Jonah Complex.

Another reason for the Jonah Complex is that negative emotions are reflected on social media as if they never happened. On social media, everyone hides their negative state as if they are in the most talented, most beautiful, most radiant life. Maybe people are fleeing there because they can reflect on the life they aim to live in the way they want on social media. After that, fake shares are made on social media as a result of the anxiety and fear caused by the Jonah Complex, which was entered to meet the expectations of the environment. In other words, we make it look like we are not, not like we can't, but like we want. The individual who witnesses each other's fake shares begins to take on responsibilities that they cannot bear with the depression of their sense of inadequacy. However, according to Maslow, a self-realized person does not need to live according to the expectations and shares of others!

A self-realized individuals are individuals who can be happy with what they have and strive to achieve their goals. The people who can achieve this can protect themselves from the feelings of fear and anxiety of the Jonah Complex. The Jonah Complex gives rise to this Decaying chain of negative emotions for the individual. After the first anxiety, a new anxiety appears, and another anxiety that it will also bring. These concerns, which are personal and minimalist at the first stage, can occupy a larger space in life unless they are recognized and accepted.

As a result of this complex, individuals begin to make choices and environments in which they can feel safe, where no one will have any expectations from them, and where their performance cannot be criticized. This situation can also push a person to become lonely. The individual ignores what they can achieve, focus on what they cannot achieve, push themselves down, and sabotage themselves.

For me, the Jonah Complex is an 'individuals' adventure of turning themselves into an apple wolf while they are an apple’. The way to stay an apple rather than an apple worm is for an individual to be objective and honest with themselves. Without looking at the motivation pages or fake posts on social media, when an individual realizes what they can do by getting to know themselves, they can completely stay away from the Jonah Complex. The last step of the Hierarchy of Needs is to be able to realize oneself according to oneself and not according to others.

Stereotypes and prejudices can form as a result of people's interaction with each other and the formation of collective perceptions. Stereotypes are beliefs that are formed in us against a certain group or society and are widely accepted. Prejudices, on the other hand, are the product of a completely pre-formed thought and feeling. Social psychologists have put forward various theories to explain the formation of prejudices and stereotypes. For example, social learning theory argues that individuals learn biases and stereotypes based on the messages they receive from their environment. According to this theory, children perceive the world with the information they receive from their families, educational institutions, the media, and other social interaction environments, and develop biases about groups or individuals based on this information.

Another important theory is the social identity theory. According to this theory, individuals Decouple between groups because they are connected to their group with a sense of belonging. They tend to see their group as superior to other groups. This prepares the ground for the formation of Decision and prejudice between groups. In addition, social cognitive theory is also an approach used to explain the formation of biases and stereotypes. According to this theory, individuals tend to generalize through fast and automatic thinking processes when processing information, which can lead to the formation of stereotypes. These theories help us understand how biases and stereotypes are formed in a complex and multifaceted way. Social psychologists have also developed various strategies to reduce these negative patterns and make society more inclusive. First of all, it is important to develop awareness. Noticing stereotypes and questioning them can help reduce prejudices. In addition, interacting with different people, and understanding diversity and differences can also help reduce stereotypes. It is also important to be open-minded towards ourselves and others.

As a result, we should pay attention to the following: we should not forget and fight the formation processes of these feelings in order to Deconstruct the darkness of stereotypes and prejudices, which are like a shadow formed when people come together, blurring the truth and covering deep thoughts, and ensuring that they do not come near us again. The curtain that covers our thoughts, which we are talking about, takes over and causes us to lose our unique thoughts. As soon as we understand that it will cause society to submit to it and be plunged into darkness, we must go to the birthplace of our thoughts. As humanity, we may be trapped in the boundaries of our inner worlds and distanced from reality by the influence of collective perceptions. In this case, we need to show the courage and maturity to think from a different point of view. We must bring this courage and maturity to the forefront like a shining star in the dark. Only then, in order to find this star and guide humanity towards the right, the light of individual thought is needed. 

Where are you in this collective perception?

One of the biggest factors affecting neuroplasticity is aging and neurodegenerative diseases(Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, etc.) as well as stress. Stress and hormones such as cortisol, which we secrete in case of stress, negatively affect our brain's neuroplasticity and neurogenesis capacity. To get rid of many of these effects of stress, we can turn to activities such as meditation, sports, and we can pay attention to our diet and sleep patterns.

Neoplasticity and Diseases

Understanding neuroplasticity is important for degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, stroke, brain tumors, and Parkinson's disease. In addition to these degenerative diseases, current research shows that insufficient neuroplasticity ability in the brain's structures that are effective in mood formation, such as the hippocampus and amygdala, may also play an important role in the development of psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety.

In order for neuroplasticity to occur, the brain must be able to obtain information and respond to the future based on this information. It is also thought that processes such as storing, combining and Deciphering information in memory lead to some changes in synapses. Considering these factors and the importance of neuroplasticity for memory, any disruption that will occur in these processes can lead to the development of mood disorders.

With current research, the relationship between neuroplasticity and depression is coming to the agenda more and more, and the belief that a neuroplasticity disorder may play a role in the formation of depression is becoming stronger.

How Can We Improve Our Neuroplasticity Capacity?

Physical exercise: In addition to its many health benefits, physical exercise also positively affects our neuroplasticity capacity. In order to increase our neuroplasticity capacity, we can turn to a sports branch that interests you, go on nature walks, and ride bicycles.

Meditation: Activities such as meditation and yoga will help you cope with stress, which will relax you both physically and mentally, while also positively affecting your neuroplasticity capacity.

Get out of the routine: Taking up new hobbies such as musical instruments, dancing or art, exploring new places and even learning a new language will positively affect the neuroplasticity capacity of the mind.

Pay attention to your diet and sleep patterns: Sleep is the source of nutrition for the mind and body. While we sleep, our mind, body, and brain are both rested, refreshed, and repair themselves. Eating according to the needs of the body and mind and adequate sleep patterns are an important factor for neuroplasticity.

Reading books: Reading books and new fiction increases the ability of neuroplasticity, strengthens brain connections, as well as positive effects on subjects such as thinking skills, vocabulary, and empathy ability.

Memory games and puzzles: You can solve puzzles, and play memory games to improve your memory and neuroplasticity capacity.

REFERENCES

1.Düzce Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi / DÜ Sağlık Bil Enst Derg Journal of Duzce University Health Sciences Institute / J DU Health Sci Inst ISSN: 2146-443X sbedergi@duzce.edu.tr 2019; 9(1): 31-38.

2.Gürpınar D, Erol A, METE L. Depresyon ve Nöroplastisite. Klinik Psikofarmakoloji Bülteni 2007;17(2): 100-10.

3.Uzbay T.Anksiyete ve Depresyonun Nörobiyolojisi.Klinik Psikiyatri Dergisi. 2004; 1(2): 58-62.

4.Gönül AS, Akdeniz F Depresyon, nöroplastisite, nörogenesis ve nörotrofik faktörler. Klinik Psikiyatri Dergisi 2002;5(Ek Say› 4):51-56.

5. Başaran D. C., Yıldırım F, Ekenci B. Y., Kılıç S, ve Ülgen P.. Nöroplastisite ve Güncel Yaklaşımlar. Başkent üniversitesi, 15.öǧrenci sempozyumu sunumu. 2013

Attachment patterns are the characteristics of individuals in close relationships.describes their behavior and emotional reactions. John Bowlby's attachment theory It emphasizes the baby's need for closeness and trust with the primary caregiver.Attachment behavior is the baby's behavior to meet this need. It calls it . These behaviors help the baby protect himself from dangers and makes him feel safe. The formation of attachment behaviors, the baby's early It is based on the relationship established with the mother or caregiver at an early age. This relationship is the baby's It is strengthened by satisfying the emotional and physical needs of the baby and leads to the development of a secure attachment pattern.

Some studies have shown that individuals with a secure attachment pattern have emotional regulation skills are more developed and therefore eating disorders It suggests that the risk of emotional disorders such as is reduced. On the other hand,Individuals with anxious or avoidant attachment patterns have more emotional  problems such as disordered eating disorders and eating disorders It is stated that they tend to. However, the relationship between bulimia nervosa and attachment patterns More research is needed to fully understand. Connecting differently understanding the effects of eating patterns on eating disorders is important both in clinical practice.It can also play an important role in therapeutic interventions.

Now I would like to briefly talk about 4 types of attachment;

The primary caregiver should be sensitive to the baby's needs.If the child responds, a secure attachment usually develops. This individuals with this type of attachment experience long-term relationships in adulthood.They tend to establish long-term, trusting, romantic and social relationships. They have confidence in themselves and others, which leads to emotional ıt enables them to develop rich and satisfying relationships. express your feelings they are generally comfortable with making friends with the people around them.They act with a reliable perception of the world. This sense of trust makes people to experience their lives in a more positive and meaningful way might help.

If the caregiver has a lack of sensitivity towards the child If it does, anxious or ambivalent attachment usually occurs. This ın this case, the child calms down when he leaves the person he is attached to.It may be difficult. Even if the caregiver returns, this anxious state may last for a while. It can continue. Individuals with this type of attachment develop into adulthood often have anxious and dependent social relationships during periods of they establish. They tend to trust the other party, not themselves and this can also increase the imbalance in their relationships. The world is uncertainty and uncertainty for them.It can be perceived as a place that gives a feeling of insecurity. This situation causes the person learn to be sensitive to their own needs and feelings can hinder and negatively impact the ability to form healthy relationships.may affect.

If the caregiver is distant and emotional towards the child.If they exhibit a cold attitude, avoidant attachment usually occurs. In this case, even if the child leaves the person to whom he is attached, He may not realize it and may be unresponsive when he returns. This kind individuals with attachment relationships in adulthood they may have difficulty establishing it. They are self-confident and their relationships are generally they establish it in line with their own interests. They may struggle and their social relationships may be emotionally unstable about expressing their feelings.The world may be perceived as an unsafe place for them. This situation, It can prevent deep connections and emotional satisfaction in relationships because lack of trust prevents the establishment of emotionally satisfying relationships can make it difficult.

The last type of attachment is disorganized attachment.It is generally the unhealthiest. In this case, the caregiver usually has a pathological condition, such as borderline personality disorder such as schizophrenia or obsessive-compulsive disorder. This caregiver is the child He is a figure who wants to be close but cannot be trusted.The child may become restless when separated from his/her caregiver, but even if he turns around, he either cannot calm down or asks the caregiver after a few seconds walks away. Individuals with this type of attachment are adulthood due to the influence of the complex relationships they experienced during their They may have difficulty establishing relationships during this period. To themselves or others they have difficulty trusting and often view the world in an unsafe manner.They perceive it as a place. This situation causes permanent damage to emotional and social relationships.It can create hesitation and anxiety because lack of trust is not a healthy relationship. may hinder its development and prevent connections with the World can make it difficult.

So, now lets see now what is the difference between attachment types and eating disorders...

There may be a relationship, according to Bowbly's theory, the baby who cannot be securely attached cannot meet his/her individual needs and will not be able to maintain nutrition, which is their most basic need.And naturally, he will try to meet this need with thumb sucking or bottle feeding. The baby who cannot be satisfied orally may not have an emotional relationship with the primary caregiver.This is to get rid of anxiety that is at an unmanageable level because will compensate for the behavior. Continuing this habit later in life and will have an eating disorder. Insecurely attached individuals Low self-esteem, feelings of inadequacy and uselessness can also develop in eating disorder patients, and this supports my opinion.

If I need to support my thoughts with Freud's theory, the point I will mention is; Insecurely attached baby, according to psychosexual theory, fixation in oral period prone to addiction and OCD, controlling and he will have a jealous personality. (The oral period, in this theory, refers to the individual's life from birth to It refers to the period until approximately 1 year of age and during this period, nutritional and oral Satisfaction through satisfaction is important.) Its relationship with food, which is the most easily accessible thing, is unhealthy  will happen, and by making himself vomit, the person will actually give himself control of everything.He/she will enjoy the feeling of being able to provide

Veronika has lost hope for the future; she cannot take action because she is afraid that her usual order will be disrupted and something will change, and cares about what others want, and even renounces her wishes for them when it comes time.

To him, life was uniform, and Veronica was a tiny part of this uniform world. The future waiting for her was very clear, and Veronika decided to commit suicide in order not to live this future, but most importantly to escape the fear and distress created by this future, which she thought she could not change. However, the suicide attempt failed and Veronika was imprisoned in a mental hospital. So how did Veronica come to have the courage she couldn't gain to commit suicide to change the future she believed she was doomed to

Suicide is an act that is performed physically and starts in the mind first to get rid of mental pain. A person has first killed his hopes and existence in his mind. That's what takes courage. If a person has killed himself in his mind and given up on life, harming himself is the easy part of suicide. In short, the thing that drives us to live is death itself, which is the source of our joy of living. Knowing that one day he will die and that he can't help it scares a person, as a result, he clings to life by trying to forget the reality of death.

Veronika has always cared about what her family will think when making decisions about her life, she has always been afraid of disappointing them. He thought he was reciprocating his family's love by not disappointing them. The life she achieved at the end of the path she had drawn for herself by putting the wishes of others ahead of her own wishes did not satisfy Veronika; she had lost her love for herself and for living. He didn't have the courage to change his life and see that he had let others down. Suicide, on the other hand, according to him, was an act that would allow him to escape from his life, where he would be free as a result, he had made his own decision and hated. Thus, he attempted suicide, but he could not achieve success from this attempt. But the drugs he took had damaged his heart and he had a very short life left. As death approached, Veronica's desire to live increased. He realized that there were different aspects that he could love and that he had actually chosen his one-straight life himself. He wanted to get out of the hospital, explore. At the end of the book, she fell in love with Eduard, and they ran away from the hospital with him. So that Veronika won't actually die, Dr. We learn that Igor is setting up a little game for Veronika. Although it may not sound ethical, Dr. Igor reminded Veronika of the fear of death, which is the source of the joy of living, and with this fear, Veronika wanted to hold on to life by discovering herself.

When we look at the psychological elements and patients included in the book, the psychological conditions of the period of the book, the minds of individuals with mental health problems and the stigma are really beautifully processed. Zedka with a depressive disorder, Mari with a panic disorder and Eduard with a schizophrenic disorder... When we look at the thoughts of all these individuals and the treatments applied to them, we can see in detail the search for the basis of mental disorders and the effects of disorders on the lives of individuals, as well as witnessing the developments in the field of psychology from the past to the present.

In short, Veronika's schemes and beliefs, which led her to suicide, were often questioned by Veronika during her stay in the mental hospital, and Veronika began to search for a deep identity. He attempted suicide with the desperation he felt, but he discovered that there was a person he could love and different ways he could go. He had been able to reach the light that he needed to cling to life.

If you believe that you are also in the dark and believe that the only way to be swallowed up by the darkness is to be swallowed up by the darkness, I recommend you to read this book. Throughout the book, you will see that every darkness has a light. I hope you can discover the bright side.

Victor, who began to be trained by Itard, was only interested in eating and sleeping. He was alert and aggressive at every moment. His senses were intact, but he was not paying attention. He could not distinguish between hot and cold; he had no hesitation in putting his hand into boiling water. The concept of the pain threshold did not seem to exist in Victor. When we looked at these features in detail, Victor had not communicated with people while living in the forest. There were only animals around. Therefore, he did not know how people of his kind behave. However, he had seen animals and copied their communication patterns and movements, so social learning had taken place. Like an animal, he focused only on something when his survival instincts kicked in. At other times, he did not need to pay attention, use his senses, and was not conditioned. While the training was going on, Victor's intelligence had been the subject of discussion. According to Pinel, who specializes in the mentally disabled and mental health, Victor was an uneducable idiot. Other experts also argued that Victor was an idiot and uneducable. But Itard had not given up. Believing in the ’Tabula Rasa' theory, Itard believed that Victor had consciousness as empty as a newborn baby, if he was trained correctly and effectively, he could improve. Over time, some improvements had begun to occur in Victor. He could distinguish between hot and cold. For example, he looked at the water temperature before going into the shower, and put on his clothes when it was cold; he got under the blanket. He also enjoyed cuddling. There had been significant increases in communication with people. He enjoys spending time with people and now he can empathize. The fact that the child's Caretaker Guerin, who puts the same number of plates on the table every day, cried when she saw the plate when her husband died, lifted the plate, and never put it down again, that is, realized that something was wrong as a result of the act of crying, made psychologists think that she could build the ability to empathize. Later, for the first time, he used one of the human ways of expressing an emotion crying. However, Victor's development speed was not at the desired level despite all this. As a result of literacy training, he gradually began to distinguish sounds that he could not distinguish at first. after 5 years of training, he could distinguish very few written words and could distinguish a few words when he heard them. But Victor still could not speak. There were meaningless sounds that he used against events. But these were no more than a few meaningless sounds that he used against every event. at the end of 6 years, the trainings were stopped. Itard had given up and now wanted to work with children he could fix.

Despite all this, Victor had opened an important door in the world of science, even though he could not completely recover on his own. He had increased the interest in the education of children with intellectual disabilities. The idea that children with mental retardation could acquire at least some basic skills had developed a little. Among all these developments, the most important was the emergence of the concept of ‘critical process’ in language development. According to this theory, it is impossible for someone who has not been exposed to language to learn a language until a certain age. Victor led a quiet life until his death at the age of 40. His story has been the subject of books and on the white screen. In short, as the wild child of Victor Aveyron, he has taken an important place in the history of psychology and linguistics.

If you want to witness Victor's story, I suggest you watch the movie about Victor's story called ‘The Wild Child’.

References:

Çelebi, H. E. (2024, Ocak 20). Aveyron'un Vahşi Çocuğu. Y'ol Psikoloji: retrieved from https://www.yolpsikoloji.com.tr/post/aveyron-un-vahşi̇ -çocuğu

Kaşikçi, E. (2021, Kasim 23). Yıllarca Ormanda Tek Başına Hayatta Kalan Çocuğun Hayatınız Boyunca Unutamayacağınız Çarpıcı Hikayesi. Web Tecno: retrieved from https://www.webtekno.com/psikoloji-tarihinin-en-ilginc-vakalarindan olan- aveyron-vahsi-cocugu-h116741.html

Social media provides an opportunity for narcissists torecreate themselves (self-regulation). Narcissistic people whoact with the motivation of being liked, accepted and have lessempathy; who are less likely to be in long-term, closerelationships, are more inclined to project themselves as someone they are not on social media platforms to increasetheir likeability. Facebook and Twitter There is a research on whether narcissistic behavior varies according to age betweenFacebook and Twitter. Dec. According to this study, narcissistic college students use Twitter more to reflect theirnarcissistic motives, while narcissistic adults use Facebook more. In addition, the connection of time spent on the siteswith age and narcissism has also been established. Althoughnarcissistic university students prefer Twitter more to reflecttheir narcissistic motives, they spend more time on Facebook than narcissistic adults. To reflect their own narcissisticmotives, they use themselves to collect information rather thanshare it. There is no Decoupling between narcissism and time spent on Twitter. Because, as another study suggests, Twittercan also be used only for information collection purposes.

Facebook and Twitter Decouple Another reason for thedifference between Facebook and Twitter is that peoplecommunicate more with their friends on Facebook, whilepeople on Twitter can gain a more general audience that theydon't know as followers. Therefore, in this study, it was foundthat Twitter meets the popularity motive of narcissism more. As the popularity of the narcissistic person on the social mediaplatform increases, the state of being positive also increases, but the decline in popularity has the opposite effect. Since an increase in popularity will increase the narcissistic person'ssense of social acceptance, the person's satisfaction level willalso increase due to this. Since a decrease in popularity willthreaten the narcissistic person's ego with social rejection, theperson feels in danger and the negative mood state increases.

The Decoupling Between Narcissism and Instagram Use

It is observed that people who outweigh narcissisticcharacteristics are more active on social media platformscompared to others. Instagram, on the other hand, is the mostwidely used social media platform today, which makes it theeasiest to exhibit a person's self among these platformsthrough photos and videos.Dec. A study conducted by JangHo Moon et al. found that narcissistic people share their ownphotos on Instagram more, change their profile photos moreoften, and pay more attention to attractiveness in these photos. Although it was found in this study that narcissism waspositively related to the time spent on Instagram and thefrequency of changing profile photos, no valid relationshipwas found between the number of followers, the number of followers and the frequency of sharing photos. Dec.

Another study conducted by Patrick Sheldon found that one of the reasons why narcissistic people like or comment on photosof friends may be the reason for increasing their visibility andtherefore popularity by the people who own the photo.

The Connection of Social Media Usage Time withNarcissism

Narcissistic people spend more time on social media toolsthan people who are less narcissistic and use them more toshow themselves and prove themselves. It is also a subject of research whether social media increases the narcissism of a person who was not a narcissist before using social media.

Narcissism and the Neurological Dimension of SocialMedia Use

If the effect of social media on narcissistic attitudes is considered from a neurological point of view, the prefrontalcortex perceives feedback such as likes, comments as compliments, compliments, rewards. Therefore, the reward-seeking movement takes place. Some hormones are alsosecreted according to the nature of the feedback. For example, dopamine is secreted in positive feedback, while GABA, which also plays a role in anxiety, is secreted in negativefeedback. Negative feedback threatens the ego of thenarcissistic individual and creates a fear of social rejection.

REFERENCES:

Buffardi LE, Campbell WK. Narcissism and socialnetworking web sites. Personality and Social PsychologyBulletin Vol. 34 No. 10, October 2008 1303-1314.

Jabeen F, Gerritsen C, Treur J. Narcissism and fame: a complex network model for the adaptive interaction of digitalnarcissism and online popularity. Network Science (2020) 5:84.

James C, Davis K, Charmaraman L, Konrath S, Slovak P, Weinstein E, Yarosh L. Digital life and youth well-being, social connectedness, empathy, and narcissism. PediatricsVolume 140, number S2, November 2017:e20161758.

Moon JH, Lee E, Lee JA, Choi TR, Sung Y. The role of narcissism in self-promotion on instagram. Elsevier, Personality and Individual Differences 101 (2016) 22–25.

Panek ET, Nardis Y, Konrath S. Mirror or Megaphone?: How relationships between narcissism and social networking site use differ on Facebook and Twitter. Elsevier, Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 2004–2012.

Sheldon P. (2015). In Self-monitoring and narcissism aspredictors of sharing Facebook photographs. Presented at thesouthern states communication association conference, Tampa, FL.

Sheldon P, Bryant K. Instagram: motives for its use andrelationship to narcissism and contextual age. Elsevier, Computers in Human Behavior 58 (2016) 89e97.

-Mark Wolynn, It Didn't Start with You.

What is Trauma?

Traumatic experiences are the experiences that an individual encounters in the natural course of life and that create psychological difficulties and leave a mark on the individual by disabling the individual's coping strategies. These experiences can cause mental symptoms such as depression, anxiety and physical symptoms such as palpitations and tremors in the individual. Depending on the destructiveness of the traumatic experience and the extent to which it affects the individual, it can also be passed on to subsequent generations. There are also psychological and biological approaches to this transfer of trauma.

Transmission of Trauma from Generation to Generation

Intergenerational trauma transfer covers the transfer of individual and social traumas to subsequent generations physically and spiritually. Although social traumas affect a wider audience, they can be more easily investigated. The first studies on the intergenerational transmission of trauma began with studies on the children of victims of genocide and war. Dec. The study data on the transmission of individual traumas are more limited than the data of social trauma studies. While studies have been able to provide information about how individuals who have experienced social traumas such as genocide can transmit this trauma to their children and even grandchildren and how it happened, information about how individual traumas such as harassment can be transmitted to subsequent generations is quite limited.

Transmission of Trauma Through Genes

Although biological approaches are still being discussed, the data we have have shown that trauma can also be transmitted through genes. These traumas and their effects can also be epigenetically inherited to future generations. The concept of epigenetic change describes the activation of genes that are not normally active as a result of various conditions. From this point of view, trauma transmitted to a child through genes can be activated as a result of the environment in which he grew up and the conditions to which he was exposed. Some studies show that the children of parents who are exposed to intense stress during pregnancy and have post-traumatic stress disorder are also born more prone to stress than other children. As a result, we can understand that the likelihood of developing trauma is also increasing.

In a study conducted on people who were tortured during World War II, were in concentration camps or witnessed torture, a significant difference was observed between the genes of the children of genocide survivors and the genes of the children of people who had never been exposed to trauma. Dec. According to the researchers, this genetic change occurred due to the severe trauma experienced by the parents.

In addition, recent research has shown that coping mechanisms are also transmitted to generations through genes. In individuals whose family has experienced famine, earthquake, flood or war, children's stress and coping strategies are transferred. It seems that the children of parents who cope with their traumas in a healthy way also have a higher capacity to cope with stress and process the situation when faced with any situation.

Transferring Trauma through Social Learning

People who have experienced trauma develop some reactions and coping strategies to situations and individuals as a result of their experiences. They also reflect these reactions and strategies they develop when they become parents to the relationships they establish with their children and their approaches to them. It is observed that children who follow the example of their parents, identify with them and live within the rules set by them imitate their behavioral patterns as a result of this situation; internalize their reactions and strategies. It is observed that children of parents with traumatic experiences develop a type of attachment called traumatic attachment. Children who grow up with overly strict, perfectionist attitudes that parents develop as a result of negative experiences may also internalize these attitudes or perform the opposite avoidance. For example, the mother's fear of the dark eventually becomes the child's fear as a result of observing the mother and the mother's attitudes. Thus, she internalizes the trauma of the mother. In addition to all these, clearly and clearly transferring the trauma experienced by the family to the child without filtering can also reveal trauma in the child.

If we take it in general, the factors affecting the transmission of trauma are as follows:

• The way parents raise their children

* The relationship established Decoupled between parent and child

• The way parents process trauma to children

• How children will experience the transmitted trauma

If you want to get more detailed information about this topic, I recommend reading the book ‘It Didn't Start with You’ written by Mark Wolly.

REFERENCES

Çelik, C. (2022, Agustos 22). Kuşaklar Arası Travma Aktarımı. Cemil Çelik: https://www.cemilcelik.com.tr/kusaklar-arasi-travma-aktarimi/ adresinden alındı

Karatay, G. (2020). Tarihsel/Toplumsal Travmalar ve Kuşaklararası Aktarımı Biçimleri Üzerine. Süreli Tıp Eğitimi Dergisi,29, 373-379. doi: 10.17942/sted.767797

Mona Psikoloji. (2020, Kasım 10). Travmanın Kuşaklararası Aktarımı. Mona Psikoloji: https://www.monapsikoloji.com/travmanin-kusaklararasi-aktarimi/ 

Klein settled in Budapest after her marriage. This city became the turning point of his life because it was here that he met Ferenczi, who was one of Freud's close circle. Ferenczi, known as the father of psychoanalysis, initially met with Klein for therapeutic purposes, and then allowed Klein to move his interest in psychology beyond a hobby. Ferenczi suggested that Klein analyze his own children, Klein definitely made an introduction to psychoanalysis with this suggestion. Later, he had the opportunity to listen to Freud in Budapest and wrote his first article on child case analysis. Melanie Klein was accepted as a member of the Psychoanalysis Association. He presented his own son Erich's analysis under a different name. He attracted the attention of Ernest Jones with his congresses and activities and moved to London with his invitation.

Klein is referred to as the founder of the theory of object relations. In Klein's theory, there is an association from the moment the child is born, and the importance of the object is in question. What Klein based on was the relationship between the mother's breast and the child. According to Klein, the baby creates its own reality at first. He cannot perceive reality as adults perceive it, and his first reality is completely imaginary. This imaginary object is the mother's breast. The first internal object with which the baby is associated establishes its relationship with the mother's breast. The ego exists from the moment the child is born and is subjected to development. Klein emphasizes the importance of the first 4-6 months after childbirth. Due to the inability of the child to express his own associations, the free play technique is used. He leaves the game to the child and the child chooses the toy. He plays effectively with the child, but the child also positions himself.

The Concept of Good Breast- Bad Breast
According to Klein, the first object that the baby associates with is the mother's breast. This first relationship determines how their future relationship will be shaped. Junky breasts are experienced by the baby as an object that does not give pleasure, distracts from pleasure. Junky breasts are experienced by the baby as an object that does not give pleasure. The baby feels anger towards this object that does not provide him with satisfaction. A good breast, on the other hand, is experienced as an object that feeds the baby and meets its needs. The baby sees a good breast as a protector and wants to protect it himself. A bad breast, on the other hand, raises the issues of abandonment of the baby, being left alone. The baby feels the desire to destroy, destroy the bad breast. The baby, who experiences the breast as such a rich, nutritious, perceives it as a powerful object. And the bad breast thinks that he is saving the milk for himself. The baby feels “envy” towards the bad breast and wants to be destructive towards the breast. Because according to the baby, the bad breast object keeps its satiety to itself and leaves the baby hungry. Babies feel dependent on their mother to meet their needs. She also meets her security needs through her mother. Over time, the baby realizes that mom is an object that communicates with dad, other siblings, the environment, and that she is not the only person he is interested in. The division of interests and resources reveals a feeling of “jealousy” in the baby.

The concept of "location"
Klein says that according to the object relations theory, infancy was spent in paranoid schizoid and depressive positions. These locations have their own characteristics, defense mechanisms and internal object relationships. The position gained does not stay forever, returns can be experienced.

Paranoid-Schizoid Position: As soon as the baby is born, he experiences himself with evil and destructive objects. This is not a tolerable situation. It is more tolerable to have these evil objects outside than to have evil objects inside oneself, and therefore, in order to get rid of baby anxiety, it tries to remove the aggression and bad sides of itself that it does not want inside itself by projecting them onto the breast.

Depressed Position: In this position, the baby now begins to distinguish what is his own dream, what is reality, and to see the mother as a whole. The paranoid-schizoid position decreases. He experiences the mother as an object who both loves and deprives himself of the breast. The baby begins to feel guilty in a depressed position because of the damage he has caused to the good breast. Because this object that he damaged is now both a good and an evil object.

Only the therapist and child play in the room for the first five sessions. Other therapists and parents also watch their games through the glass or the camera. In later sessions, the parent is also involved in the games. Then, the session is Decoupled between parent and child with therapist observation and accompaniment. During the first sessions in which the parent is involved, the therapist plays an active role in facilitating the interaction between the child and the parent. These sessions are then monitored and talked to the parent with a camera, situations where the parent disrupts the interaction and is forced are transferred to the child by the therapist, and new skills are shown to the parent by creating awareness.

 Theraplay is focused on four key elements:

1. Structure

This element includes security, organization, and regulation. The parent sets boundaries, sets body boundaries, and keeps the child safe. For example; Measuring children's height, arm, leg, hand, and ear length. Measuring how far it will jump. To mummify the child by wrapping toilet paper around his body and then to make the child get rid of it.

 2. Commitment

It involves attachment, acceptance, and expanding positive emotions. The parent provides a strong bond, a shared experience of joy. For example; stick a colored paste on your nose, and ask the child to remove it.

 3. Feeding

It involves editing and seeing value. Parents respond with a moderate, gentle, calming approach. For example, when feeding a child fruit or pudding, embrace the child with care. Paint each other's faces, and add a word to praise each place you paint.

 4. Struggle

The competition includes self-confidence and supporting exploration. The parent supports the child to take risks, strive, explore, and master their skills. For example; both the child and you, hold a pillow in front of you, and blow the feather toy over this pillow. Let the child also try to hold it with his pillow.

Theraplay can be applied to children between the ages of 2-12. It is a play therapy used in children who have difficulty in social relationships, introversion, behavioral problems, depression, shyness, attachment problems, confrontational or anger attacks, that is, experience emotional difficulties. It is also effective in children with autism spectrum disorder, developmental delay, and physical difficulties.

You can get more detailed information from the Theraplay Game and Family Therapy Association, established in Turkey in 2019 for the dissemination and development of game and family therapies and theraplay therapy.

Usually, these people have a psychological problem, and this condition manifests itself through physical symptoms. Physically symptom disorder, manifests itself by experiencing physical symptoms that affect a person's life, although there is no medical explanation for the physical symptoms. There are some distortions in the emotions, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals related to the physical symptoms they experience. For example, these people interpret any physical symptoms as having a very serious illness, often feel concerns for their health, a constantly go to different doctors and look for signs of physical discomfort in their body. They spend a significant and constant level of time and energy on their bodily symptoms. The vast majority of their lives continue in this way. This condition reduces the satisfaction in their lives, causes disruptions in daily life functions, and causes them to experience intense stress. Individuals who avoid daily activities and social relationships are intensely interested in their isolation and physical complaints.

What are the Common Physical Symptoms of Physical Symptom Disorder?

These symptoms are usually related to chronic pain in areas such as back pain, neck, abdomen, face, head, muscles, and excretory system, where it is difficult to measure and evaluate pain. Nov. Along with these; stomach cramps, constipation, fatigue, heart palpitations, dry mouth, difficulty breathing, tingling, and numbness in the body also manifest themselves as intense menstrual pains in women. 

These symptoms may vary at various times and periods. For example, these symptoms begin in adolescence or early adulthood, worsen during stress, may ease when stress decreases, or may be replaced by another symptom. A young girl who feels intense pains at the beginning of her menstrual period may experience relief of this pain later on and instead experience this condition with a different complaint, such as a chronic headache or intense back and chest pain. 

Physical Symptom Disorder / DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria

A. If there are somatic symptoms that cause significant disruptions in the person's daily living activities,

B. 1., 2. and 3. if there is the presence of at least one substance related to thoughts, feelings, behaviors, or health-related to the somatic symptoms described in the substance

 1. The presence of constant and irrational thoughts about the severity of symptoms,

2. The presence of a consistently high level of concerns about health and symptoms,

3. The appearance of excessive expenditure of time and energy on the symptom and anxiety in question.

C. Although any bodily symptoms are not present at any time, the state of being symptomatic usually persists for more than 6 months.

If the somatic symptoms are painful, painful, severe symptoms cause significant deterioration, and a continuous period of at least 6 months prevails Oct continuously; one of the conditions in criterion B is ice; at a mild level, if there are two or more, at a moderate level, if more than one somatic complaint appears as severe, severe bodily symptom disorder can be mentioned.

RESEARCH CORNER

• It should be known that these people are not in a state of simulation (making themselves look sick). In other words, they do not consciously and willingly behave as if they are sick. They are experiencing the physical complaints they are talking about.
• As a result of the research conducted, it has been found that Physical Symptom Disorder is more common in women than in men.
• It is estimated that 5-7% of primary health care patients and about 20% of internal medicine patients have physical symptom disorders.
• Physical symptoms are known to frequently affect the gastrointestinal, cardiorrhea, and musculoskeletal systems.
• Associated psychological problems such as anxiety, depression, a history of trauma, or challenging life events are common under this condition, but this diagnosis can be made when the symptoms are not fully explained by other medical or mental disorders.
• For treatment, Cognitive Behavioral therapy is the most commonly used approach. Detailed and accurate information about the complaints is given to the person and studies are carried out on their cognitive distortions. It is studied on changing the thoughts and behaviors that disrupt the functionality of the individual.
• Relaxation techniques, biofeedback (reorganization of some physiological functions that are under our control in our body accompanied by instantaneous data), and hypnosis are used to try to gain control over physical experiences with methods such as.

References

S. Kerim.(2022). Disosiyatif Bozukluklar ve Bedensel Belirti Bozuklukları Tuna E. ve Ö. Öncül Demir (ed.) DSM-5’ E Göre Anormal psikoloji. (2;268,269- 279).Nobel Yayıncılık.

The Social Effects of War

Wars have a direct and profound impact on the social and economic structures of societies. One of the most obvious effects of wars on societies is the losses that occur due to war. These losses carry a great burden emotionally and psychologically. Families suffer through the loss of loved ones, which affects the mood of the community. Wars also have an impact on social hierarchy and power dynamics. The winners and losers of the war can be ranked at the top or bottom of society. This determines the social class differences. For example, people on the losing side of the war may experience a social decline. This can trigger social unrest and even revolutions.

Psychological Effects of War

“The reality of psychological trauma has once again challenged public consciousness with the devastation of World War I. Over eight million people have died in four years in this long war of attrition. By the time the massacre ended, four European empires had been destroyed and many of the creeds on which Western civilization was based had been shattered.” There was also an individual psychological dimension to the destruction experienced especially after World War I. According to the traditional understanding, a soldier, that is, a man, should be proud of the war and should not have any emotional reactions. Through this understanding, discourses were made about soldiers who experienced traumatic neurosis after World War I in the form of “men who show feminine and passive homosexual tendencies”. There are claims that the symptoms of post-war mental Decay were ignored by attributing them to physical causes. This kind of ignored brutality of soldiers who have been exposed to the brutality of war can also be seen as a separate traumatic phenomenon for that period after the war. Fortunately, in the following years, after the post-war processes, steps have been taken to explain the causes of war-related psychopathology.

As a direct result of the war, stress disorders as a result of trauma are common among soldiers and the civilian population. The violence of war, the threat of death, the loss of friends, and other traumatic experiences can seriously affect a person's mental health. Symptoms include recurring nightmares, sudden episodes of fear, a constant feeling of danger, and constant reenactment of traumatic memories in the mind. Traumatic experiences during or after the war can trigger deep depression in people. The devastating effects of war can lead people to lose motivation for life and despair. The constant danger and uncertainty of war can create a constant feeling of anxiety in people. This can lead to anxiety disorders and negatively affect people's daily lives. The intense violence of war can cause soldiers and civilians to experience anger and violence control problems. This can lead to social problems such as domestic violence. As a result of war experiences, people may feel lonely. They may also be separated from their communities, which can lead to social isolation. War can affect children in a particularly traumatic way. The violence experienced during the war can lead to psychological problems such as nightmares, anxiety, and fear in children. It should also be remembered that war can hinder children's educational opportunities. After the war, it can be difficult for people affected to reintegrate into their communities. This can lead to post-traumatic community integration problems. After the war, it can be difficult for people affected to reintegrate into their communities. Post-war community integration problems can prevent people from processing their traumatic experiences and adapting to their societies.

The psychological effects of war can vary depending on the experiences of individuals, personal resilience, and social support systems. Therefore, psychological help and support are important to cope with the psychological effects of war. In addition, preventing war and providing social support after war can help reduce the psychological effects of war.

However, taking the in-depth examination of the causes of their problems out of the process significantly reduces the time required for consultation. In other words, when solutions are focused, consultation sessions end in less time. Behavior is more in the foreground than insight.

If we look at it from the consultant's perspective, consultants who adopt a solution-oriented approach take care to use their clients' words, so it becomes even easier for clients to understand the process. In this way, an ideal environment is created for both sides during the consultation process.

From the client's point of view, this process will help the client determine his own goals. The wishes of the client, not the consultant, are important, and clients are seen as experts who know themselves best. This situation brings with it the belief, trust, and respect for the client.

Solution-oriented therapy is based on principles such as;

“If it's not broken, don't fix it.”,

“Do more if it works.”,

“If it's not working, do something different.”,

“Small steps can lead to big changes.“,

"No problem always exists; there are always times when there is no problem, exceptions that can be taken advantage of.”,

“The future is both creatable and reconcilable." (De Shazer and Dolan, 2012).

Based on this, solving problems healthily as soon as possible instead of detailing them in depth is the essence of solution-oriented therapy, and many of the techniques used in therapy are attractive to clients because they focus people on the goal and the positive.

What is a Mood Disorder?
As is known, the concept of mood refers to the average state of emotions over a certain period of time. Mood disorders are psychological disorders defined by emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and somatic symptoms. (Gurcan Yildirim D. 2022, p.135.). This disorder can also be expressed as a deviation of emotional states from the normal. For example, one of the symptoms of this disorder is that an individual has stressful, depressive thoughts when there is no adverse situation in his life, or vice versa, an individual is full of energy and happy when there is no situation in which to be overly optimistic.

Bipolar Disorder
Bipolar disorder is known as a mental health disorder that changes with extreme fluctuations in emotional states. The most common feature of bipolar disorder is that both depressive and manic or hypomanic episodes occur together. (Gurcan Yildirim D. 2022, p.125). The differences between bipolar disorders are determined according to the characteristics of manic symptoms, that is, the severity and duration of the manic symptom help determine the category of bipolar disorder.

WHAT ARE THE DSM-5 DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA FOR MANIC AND HYPOMANIC EPISODES?

Manic Episode Diagnostic Criteria

• Symptoms should be seen for at least a week.
• A disorder in an individual's mood leads to a significant deterioration in social and occupational functioning.
• A person with a manic episode may need to undergo inpatient treatment in a hospital.

Hypomanic Episode Diagnostic Criteria

• Symptoms should be seen Decently for at least 4 consecutive days.
• The disorder in the individual's mood is not at a level that will lead to a deterioration in social and occupational functioning.
• This disorder is not severe enough to require hospital treatment.

Symptoms
1. The appearance of increased self-confidence or grandiosity in the individual.
2. The manifestation of a decreased need for sleep.
3. Experiencing an increase in speech.
4. The appearance of flights in thoughts.
5. The individual's experience of distraction.
6. Experiencing increases in goal-oriented behaviors or psychomotor agitation.
7. The person's participation in activities that will have negative consequences. For example, careless driving, and spending a large amount of money on gambling.

o In order for a person to be diagnosed with bipolar disorder, at least 3 of the symptoms must be seen and differ markedly from their usual behavior (Gürcan Yildirim D. 2022, p.126).

Types of Bipolar Disorder
1. Bipolar I Disorder
A person must have had a manic episode at least once in his past life to receive this diagnosis. There are no criteria other than this.

2. Bipolar II Disorder
For a person to receive this diagnosis, he must have experienced a major depressive episode at least once in the past, and, at the same time, he must have experienced a hypomanic episode. An important criterion for this diagnosis is that there should be no manicure episodes in the person's past life.

3. Cyclothymic (Cyclical) Disorder
If this disorder is compared to other bipolar disorders, it manifests itself in a more chronic but less severe way than other disorders. For the diagnosis, it is expected that the person has been experiencing hypomanic and depressive episodes for at least two years. The important point here is that these periods are not severe enough to meet the diagnostic criteria of mania, hypomania, or major depression. The main feature of what is known as a cyclical disorder is the transitions that are constantly being experienced between Deceptive and elevated moods.

Treatment of Bipolar Disorders
There are treatments in both biological and psychological fields. The most commonly used drug in biological treatments is lithium, which helps to regulate mood fluctuations. It is known to regulate depressive and manic symptoms. However, medications such as emotion-regulating drugs, anticonvulsants, antipsychotics, and antidepressants are also used.
In psychological treatments, it is known that the provision of psychoeducation on the subject is of great importance and helps biological treatment. Along with this, the provision of family education also helps the situation.
Finally, interpersonal social rhythm therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy are also used in treatment.

RECOMMENDATIONS
In order to better understand the subject, the life and work of Kay Redfield Jamison, who has completed important studies on bipolar disorder and has also been diagnosed with bipolar disorder, can be reviewed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Gürcan Yıldırım.(2022). Duygudurum Bozuklukları. Tuna E. ve Ö. Öncül Demir (ed.) DSM-5’ E Göre Anormal psikoloji. (2;102-138). Nobel Yayın Evi.

HOW ARE THE SCHEMES OCCUR?
 One of the most important feelings for babies is a sense of security. In order for them to see the world as a reliable place, their needs must be met consistently. Babies' parents' who feel safe are emotionally and physically approachable. They're always there. The baby is not neglected, or abandoned, and gets love. Abandonment schema, skepticism schema, and abuse schema may arise in a child who does not get a basic sense of security (Young & Klosko, 2011, p. 46 48). They think that they will be abandoned at any moment, that others will abuse them, that everyone is biding their time to do something behind their back. It's hard for them to trust someone.

 Babies who feel safe connect safely. Bowlby (1969) defined attachment as feeling a closeness to a person and maintaining it (Demirkan, 2006). Children who are securely connected adapt well. An emotional withdrawal scheme and a social isolation scheme may occur in a child who cannot connect securely (Young & Klosko, 2011 p. 48-49). In their adult life, they feel that no one will truly love them and that they cannot belong anywhere.

 Children need autonomy in order to establish a separate world from their parents and to have an identity. They should take enough responsibility, and be supported in doing it alone. In this regard, unsupported children may have a dependency scheme and a resilience scheme (Young & Klosko, 2011 p. 49-50) Even when they become an adult, they have difficulty separating from their families financially and spiritually. They think that they cannot face the difficulties of life alone. They are always looking for people who will take care of them and protect them.

 Besides autonomy, a sense of self-confidence is also important. Children who cannot be raised with self-confidence may have imperfection and failure schemes (Young & Klosko, 2011 p. 51-52). Even if everything in your life goes regularly (a regular job, a good relationship, a good social environment, etc.) deep down, they still feel imperfect. ’There's always something missing," they think. On the contrary, these people may not have developed some skills because they grew up insecure. As a result, they may actually be failing.

 Children need to express themselves and show their feelings. They should know that their own needs are just as important as others. Children who grow up without being encouraged to express themselves may have a subordination scheme and a high standards scheme (Young & Klosko, 2011 p. 52-54). Some people can't make decisions on their own, while others want to be very successful at everything. Their standards are very high. 

 In addition to knowing their own needs, children also need realistic boundaries to be set by their parents. While parents support when it comes to the place, when it comes to the place, they should put limits on some things. Children who grow up with parents who cannot set realistic boundaries may have an entitlement scheme (Young & Klosko, 2011 p. 54-56). Although the origins of schemes differ from person to person, their common aspect is that they harm the individual (Bintaş Zörer, 2015).

THE DIFFICULTY OF REPETITION
 Schemes trigger our emotions, they affect our relationships. Even if we don't realize it sometimes, they are always there somewhere in our lives. At the point when we say ‘Something is always missing’ when our life is going well, when our life is not going well, ‘Why is this happening?‘ at the point when we say and we constantly establish relationships with people in the same style, when we experience events in the same style, "Why do the same things always find me, the same people all the time?’ at the point we said, the diagrams appear before us.

 As a child, we were neglected, abandoned, insufficiently loved, harassed, found defective, and criticized. When we become adults, we are with people who neglect, abandon, do not love us enough, harass and criticize us. We see these repetitions in our romantic relationships, in our business lives, and in our friendship relationships. Freud called this the "repetition compulsion". We make ourselves experience the pain of our childhood over and over again. For example, people with self-neglecting parents marry someone who neglects themselves. Children whose parents do not show them enough love feel attracted to partners who do not show their love in adulthood.

 When we have already experienced the pain of this in childhood, why do we repeat it in our adult life? Psychoanalyst Steven Cooper (2015) explains the reason for repetition compulsion by likening the place where the incident occurred to a crime scene. According to Cooper (2015), a person tries to solve the pain by going to the same scene and experiencing it over and over again. According to the schema approach, the emotions that trigger the schema are familiar emotions. It makes us feel at home. They're comfortable. We don't need to leave our comfort zone. There is no uncertainty, they provide a sense of control. Even if it hurts, it's familiar. This is how we learn about the world. Although abused children label people as ‘unreliable’, they still choose unreliable people in their life. Because this is what they have learned and believe. To give up our belief in the scheme means also to give up our belief that we know what the world is like. In a way, if we give up this belief, we think that we will fall into uncertainty, thinking that we will not know the world. No matter how much it hurts, we don't do it.

 Our inherent trust in the schemas provides us with a sense of consistency. This feeling of consistency is part of the human motive. That is why it is difficult to change the schemes. Although it is difficult, it is not impossible. The first step to change is to understand it. ‘What is my thought that makes me become like this? Why do I think like this, what can I do not think like this?" with questions such as " the first step to understanding our scheme can be taken.

Bibliography

• Cooper, S.H. (2015). Reflections on the Analyst’s “Good Enough” Capacity to Bear Dissappointment with Special Attention to Repetition. Journal of the American Psy. Ass. 63 (6), 1193-1213.
• Demirkan, S. (2006) Özel Sektördeki Yöneticilerin ve Çalışanların Bağlanma Stilleri, Kontrol Odağı, İş Doyumu ve Beş Faktör Kişilik Özelliklerinin Araştırılması. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi,Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.
• Young, J. E. & Klosko J. S. (2011). Hayatı yeniden keşfedin. İstanbul: Psikonet Yayınevi
• Zörer, P. B. (2015). Bağlanma kuramı perspektifinden sosyal kaygı: Erken dönem uyumsuz şemalar ve reddedilme duyarlılığının rolü. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Uludağ Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.

TAGS
Country: USA
Year of construction: 2017
Genre: Drama
Duration: 1s 47min
Directed by: Marti Noxon
Starring: Lily Collins, Keanu Reeves, Alex Sharp, Liana Libertino, Lili Taylor, Brooke Smith

REVIEW
 The main character of the film, Ellen, is an individual suffering from anorexia nervosa disorder who has lost the will to live and is resistant to treatment despite being in an extremely unhealthy state. Of course, before we start reviewing the film, let's briefly talk about what anorexia nervosa is. Anorexia is an eating disorder characterized by abnormally low body weight and body perception disorder, where individuals have an abnormally low body weight by keeping away themselves from food due to their intense fear of gaining weight.

The diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa published in the DSM 5 handbook are:
A. Anorexia restricts energy intake according to the needs of individuals. It leads to noticeably low body weight in terms of an individual's age, gender, developmental path, and body health.
B. Persons who have anorexia are very afraid of body weight gain or getting fat, and although extremely noticeable at low body weight, engage in restriction, removal, or compensatory behaviors that make it difficult to increase body weight.
C. There is a disorder related to how an individual perceives body weight or shape, the individual attaches undue importance to body weight and shape when evaluating themselves and they never understand the importance of low body weight at that time.

 If we start to review the film in this context, Ellen is a typical anorexic individual with unusual weakness, bones that have become obvious due to this weakness, and hair that her body produces to warm itself. Ellen was restricting her eating behavior to avoid gaining weight, counting the calories of her meals, and doing compensatory behaviors by doing exercises that were heavy on her body to burn the nutrients she ate. According to Ellen, her weight was not at an unhealthy level, and even thanks to this weakness, she would live longer. Ellen's these sentences are an indication that her body perception is deteriorating. Her body perception was so distorted that she did not realize that her weakness was leading her step by step to the inevitable end, death. In the following scenes, Ellen meets with Doctor Beckham at the urging of her family. Ellen, who is seeing Beckham, agrees to treatment in a far-fetched way and starts living in the same house with other people suffering from eating disorders. Luke, who introduced the house when he entered the therapy house, describes the dining room as a ‘torture chamber’ and shows the meaning of eating for anorexic individuals. Food was just calories for them, and eating was torture for them. Ellen was starting to enjoy life as she spent time with Luke and other individuals with whom she became close at the therapy house. Luke wanted to heal for a purpose. But Ellen had no purpose. Therefore, she also had no motivation for recovery. At this point, we can see how important motivation and desire are in the treatment of psychological disorders. Throughout the film, we see the difficulties and struggles experienced by Ellen and other individuals with an eating disorder. So what were the underlying causes of these disorders? Why are individuals able to control eating behavior, which is one of our most basic needs, so much? Eating disorders are disorders that have both physical and psychological aspects. Our emotions, thoughts, and experiences in everyday life can affect our mental health and, indirectly, our physical health. From this point of view, anorexia nervosa is based on the individual's feelings and problems, while the body is weakened by the inability to get the nutrients it needs, and this weakness becomes fatal day by day. When we get down to Ellen's mood and family relationships, we can see that she has problematic family relationships. Considering that her mother has postpartum depression and mood disorders, Ellen's mother does not want to live with her daughter due to the problems she experienced in adolescence, and her father is almost never in her daughter's life, it can be assumed that Ellen cannot establish a secure connection with her family and experiences loneliness. Also, the divorce of her parents and the fact that her mother was homosexual were traumatic events in Ellen's childhood. Ellen was a girl who was not noticed by her own family, unseen, and also aware of it. This realization had driven her to despair about her relationship with her parents, especially with her father. Ellen's indirect damage to her body by starving may perhaps be a result of her desire to be noticed by her family, to receive attention, and even to feel superfluous in the world. It is also extremely possible that she is expressing her anger at his family and unhappiness by harming her body. The scene in which her mother feeds Ellen, which is one of the most vital scenes of the film, actually draws attention to the bond that Ellen must have formed with her mother during the oral period. Looking at it from the point of view of a psychology student, frankly, I would have liked to have included more of Ellen's background and thoughts in the film.

 Maybe then we could have learned more clearly from Ellen's perspective what brought Ellen to this point.

 If we examine the film as a whole, it was an extremely successful film about eating disorders, the basis of these disorders, and the difficulty of treatment processes. It was also extremely valuable for the film to raise awareness and raise awareness about these disorders, which are ignored and underestimated by society. At the end of the film, we do not see Ellen in a healed state. Ellen returned to the boarding house with greater determination and desire than before. Ellen is now eager and determined to get well. From here, we can understand that the treatment of psychological disorders is a difficult path that requires patience and determination. The important thing is to believe in the light at the end of the path and the desire for that light.

 If you would like to witness Ellen's journey and the cruel effects of anorexia nervosa, I strongly recommend that you give the film a chance.

Bibliography

• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mentaldisorders (5th ed.). WashingtonDC: Author.
• CİMELİ.E.(2020), Film Analizi: Kemiklerine Kadar (To the Bone)11 Eylül 2023 https://www.monapsikoloji.com/

The Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentIn Piaget's theory, Adaptation, Regulation, Adaptation, and Assimilation are the basic concepts.
According to Piaget, all living things pass through the processes of regulation and adaptation by inheritance. The living creature organizes its actions and all its thoughts into groups. In adaptation, the living creature experiences the concepts of adaptation and assimilation: schemes are rearranged with each freshly learned knowledge and experience, this is also called assimilation, if new schemes are created with each freshly learned knowledge and experience, this is also called compliance. Cognitive categories that help a person organize and interpret the information they have acquired in their own way are called schemas. In light of all this, according to Piaget, the system of thought and logic in adulthood and the system of thought and logic in childhood are very different from each other. Piaget has divided the Theory of Cognitive Development into four periods:

1. Sensory Motor Period (0-2 years):
It is the first stage of cognitive development. Piaget argued that babies learn and experience every stimulus in the external environment with their motor skills and senses. The foundation of the later stages of development is laid here, this stage lasts until the baby's language acquisition.

2. The Period before the Procedure (3-7 years):
It is Piaget's concept of ‘Object Permanence‘ or ‘Object Continuity’ that enables the transition from the sensory-motor period to this period. In the case of eliminating any object, the condition in which the object can detect the presence of the object even if the creature is not in the field of view is called object permanence. During this period, Piaget emphasized the child's mental limitations rather than his actions. Since the child cannot perform any action or process during this period, this period has been called the Pre-Process Period. Piaget observed that children are now able to embody knowledge thanks to the language acquired during this period. For example, a child can make bean grains in the water look like fish and make them float. Piaget has examined that the games performed in this way contribute to the strengthening of the child's schemas and contribute greatly to cognitive development. Based on this refinement, he has gained the 'egocentric (egocentric)’ point of view.

This period has been studied in two subgroups within itself:
A) Symbolic Function: It is a subgroup with children between the ages of 2 and 4. It is the lower stage in which the child symbolizes them by ascribing animate features to inanimate objects, and this condition is called animism.
B) Intuitive Thinking: It covers the age range from 4 to 7 years, during this period, children focus on a single feature of any object, so they very often experience a state of centration or focused interest, or they cannot Decipher that the amounts of liquid in two different containers shown are equal, so they cannot acquire the ’conservation property’. This feature is acquired during the Concrete Transactions Period.

3. Concrete Transactions Period (7-12 Years Old):
Children starting school during this period gain the principle of protection that they could not grasp in the previous period during this period. In this way, they can make sense of and solve problems related to concrete issues. Inductive reasoning can be used by taking advantage of all the experiences acquired up to this period. During this period, the child understands that a messy room can become obsolete when it is collected, and he can perceive that a broken vase cannot be the same as before.

4. Abstract Transactions Period (over 12 years):
It is the last period in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, during which the behaviors and thoughts of adolescents, not children, were studied. Abstract information is understood without having concrete information, and the problem can be solved by making an estimate of a problem using ‘deductive reasoning‘. At the last and fourth stage of cognitive development, the adolescent who has now gained abstract thinking is able to understand and interpret the feelings and thoughts of others besides himself.

Criticism of Piaget's Theory:
Although Piaget put forward his own theory, there have been many criticisms of his theory: the most frequently criticized issue is that he did not adequately address the social environment and culture in his theory. According to critics, the influence of social environment and cultural differences had a major impact on Piaget's theory of cognitive development, but Piaget ignored this. Another criticism is that Piaget's theory does not include post-adolescent development. According to critics, in this theory, the detail in which the abilities of the person are taken into account, which we call individual differences, has been ignored. Despite the criticism of Piaget's theory, Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development has made a very important contribution to the Psychology resource and its students.

Bibliography

• biography. info/person/jean -piaget (Accessed: September 13, 2023)
• biography. net. tr/jean -piaget -who is (Accessed: September 13, 2023)
• novarge.com.tr/blog/piaget-in-bilissel-gelisim-kuramı-ve-donemleri.html (Accessed:September 13, 2023)
• dergipark.org.tr piagete-gore-development(Accessed:September 14, 2023)
• evrimagaci.org/piagetin-bilissel-gelisim-teorisi-nedir (Accessed:September 14, 2023)

The effects of traumatic events place a significant burden on individuals, families, and societies. While some individuals are resilient and can navigate their lives without major negative impacts following a traumatic event, others may experience difficulties and exhibit symptoms of traumatic stress. Each person's reaction to trauma is unique and influenced by various factors, including past experiences, beliefs, perceptions, expectations, stress tolerance, and values.

It is crucial to understand that developing post-traumatic symptoms is not indicative of psychological weakness or deficiency. The impact of a traumatic situation largely depends on pre-existing factors, such as an individual's ability to process the experience without resorting to avoidance and the presence of protective factors.

For instance, in the context of war, although all soldiers are exposed to highly traumatic experiences, not all of them are diagnosed with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). After a traumatic event, individuals are likely to experience post-traumatic stress symptoms, including sleep problems, flashbacks, and intense emotions for several weeks. However, if these symptoms persist beyond a few weeks or emerge months after the traumatic event has ended, it is crucial for the person to seek evaluation from a specialist for a potential PTSD diagnosis. The development or non-development of trauma symptoms at this point can be influenced by various factors, such as the individual's ability to process the experience without obvious avoidance and the presence of the aforementioned protective factors.

MAJOR TRAUMATIC EVENTS

According to the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders), PTSD trauma refers to any condition where an individual's bodily integrity and life are threatened, typically involving major traumas (referred to as major "T" traumas). Major "T" traumas are extraordinary and significant events that leave a person feeling powerless and devoid of control over their surroundings. The following are examples of major "T" traumas:

1. Sexual Assault 

Sexual assault encompasses non-consensual sexual behavior directed towards an adult or adolescent. It includes any forced sexual contact against the person's will, achieved through threats or physical force. Sexual assault encompasses various forms of sexual harassment and abuse, such as rape, fondling, and forced kissing. It is important to note that sexual assault is not limited to physical acts alone. For instance, coercing someone into sexual intercourse, engaging in unwanted sexual dialogues, pressuring individuals to view explicit content, or demanding unwanted sexual behavior are all forms of sexual abuse.

Child Abuse: Child abuse refers to the neglect or mistreatment of a child's well-being by a parent or caregiver. Neglect involves a failure to meet the child's basic needs, such as providing appropriate food, clothing, shelter, medical care, psychological health treatment, education, or adequate supervision. Exposing a child to dangerous environments that cause harm is also considered neglect.

Physical Abuse: Physical abuse encompasses any non-accidental injury or risk of injury to a child caused by a parent, guardian, or person responsible for their care. Physical abuse involves using physical violence to inflict harm on the child, whether to enforce obedience, punish, or vent anger. Examples of physical abuse include actions like applying pepper to the child's mouth, shaking, pushing, burning, or hitting.

Sexual Abuse: Sexual abuse involves situations where a child, unable to fully comprehend or give consent, is coerced or forced by an older adult (or someone at least six years older) to engage in sexual activities for the purpose of sexual gratification. This behavior goes against legal or social norms and is a form of sexual exploitation.

Emotional Abuse: Emotional abuse occurs when parents or adults in the child's environment impose unrealistic expectations, engage in offensive language, or undertake actions that impede emotional, social, and personality development. Examples of emotional abuse include yelling, rejecting, humiliating, cursing, leaving the child alone, misleading, intimidating, threatening, neglecting emotional needs, assigning responsibilities beyond their age, making unfair distinctions between siblings, disregarding their worth and care, mocking, using derogatory nicknames, applying excessive pressure, fostering dependency, and subjecting them to excessive protection. Child abuse and neglect not only lead to significant and often long-lasting psychological disorders but also increase the likelihood of experiencing sexual or physical assault later in life, commonly known as "re-victimization." Child abuse and neglect are considered the most significant risk factors for psychological difficulties resulting from traumatic events experienced later in life.

2. Domestic Violence 

Domestic violence refers to actual or threatened physical violence, sexual violence, and/or emotional violence occurring between adults in a close relationship. It occurs when one of the adults engages in physically or sexually aggressive behavior towards the other, including acts of humiliation, excessive criticism, stalking, and/or violence or threats against children, pets, or property. Such violence has severe consequences for both physical and psychological well-being.

3. Trauma Related to War

a) War-Related Trauma: War entails a wide range of violent and traumatic experiences, including death, the threat of mutilation, physical injuries, witnessing the injuries or death of others, and participating in injuring or killing others. As a result, soldiers directly involved in combat often suffer from traumatic stress symptoms and disorders.

b) Refugee and War Zone Trauma: Refugee trauma can occur as a consequence of living in an area affected by bombing, looting, or being forced to relocate due to political reasons. War zone trauma encompasses the psychological effects of war, political violence, or torture on individuals exposed to these circumstances.

c) Acts of Terrorism: Acts of terrorism are intentional acts of violence usually carried out for political or religious reasons, aiming to cause psychological or physical harm to an enemy. These acts often result in numerous injuries, deaths, or harm. Unfortunately, numerous examples of terrorism exist in various countries around the world.

d) Physical Assault by Strangers: Physical assault by strangers involves perpetrators engaging in physically violent behavior such as grabbing, extortion, beating, stabbing, and similar acts against individuals they do not know. The targets of these attacks are often chosen for robbery or to express the attacker's anger. Experiencing such an attack profoundly shakes a person's sense of security, leading to traumatic symptoms like fear and heightened vigilance.

4. Traumatic Loss

Traumatic loss and grief can occur following the sudden and unexpected death of a loved one, which may result from accidents, violence, or other unforeseen circumstances. The experience of a traumatic loss involves feelings of longing, searching, loneliness, as well as emotional distress characterized by lethargy, disbelief, insecurity, anger, emptiness, and a sense of hopelessness about the future. Individuals who undergo traumatic loss often struggle with inadequate coping skills to navigate the associated symptoms of trauma.

5. Natural Disasters

 Natural disasters, such as earthquakes, major fires, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes, avalanches, tornadoes, and volcanic eruptions, can cause significant harm, casualties, and extensive damage beyond human control. These events are usually sudden, unexpected, and overwhelming, exposing individuals to traumatizing situations such as injuries, fear of death, loss of loved ones, and property damage. People affected by natural disasters may exhibit various trauma symptoms, including intense and unpredictable emotions, flashbacks, difficulties with decision-making and concentration, as well as sleep and eating problems.

6. Fires

While large-scale fires are typically categorized as natural disasters, smaller-scale fires such as house fires, workplace fires, industrial fires, and firework accidents can also result in traumatic symptoms for individuals. The healing process for severe burn injuries, the painful nature of such injuries, and the multiple medical interventions involved can contribute to the recurrence of trauma symptoms.

7. Accidents

 Serious accidents, including plane, train, or motor vehicle accidents, can profoundly affect and traumatize the individuals involved. Experiencing significant injuries or the death of others in such accidents can lead to the development of severe psychological symptoms in a substantial portion of those affected. The intense shock experienced during an accident can trigger chemical changes in the brain that manifest as trauma symptoms. The effects of this type of trauma may persist for months or even years after the event. Ignoring or neglecting the impact of the trauma can exacerbate the situation. Some individuals may also alter their lifestyle or habits following accidents, such as avoiding driving or experiencing intense anxiety when faced with driving situations. Intense anxieties related to the traumatic event are common among accident survivors.

8. Medical Illnesses

Patients and their families exposed to serious illnesses, challenging medical procedures, and distressing treatment experiences can undergo extremely traumatic events, leading to the development of psychological and physical trauma symptoms. Conditions such as heart attacks, cancer, HIV/AIDS, strokes, or brain hemorrhages can be considered examples of traumatic diseases. Intensive care, surgeries, and other medical interventions that involve significant pain and fear can also contribute to trauma. Patients who have undergone major medical interventions, as well as their relatives who have witnessed the process, may exhibit symptoms of post-traumatic stress, such as depression and anxiety.

Coping with Trauma As previously mentioned, trauma is a profoundly overwhelming and challenging life event that disrupts a person's sense of security, control, and coping abilities. After experiencing a traumatic event, individuals may encounter intense emotions such as tension, anger, restlessness, depression, fear, panic, guilt, hopelessness, intolerance, helplessness, and shame. Temporary symptoms such as nightmares, sleep problems, flashbacks, avoidance, and heightened startle response may also arise. Typically, trauma symptoms last for a few days to a few months and gradually diminish as the individual processes the distressing event. However, even when one feels well, painful memories or emotions can occasionally be triggered, especially on the anniversary of the event or when confronted with reminders.

So, what can be done to overcome traumatic events?

1. Avoid avoiding discussions about the incident. Contrary to popular belief, trying to forget the event and avoiding conversations about it does not reduce the effects of trauma. In fact, it can prolong the recovery process. Talking about the traumatic experience and seeking social support can help individuals cope with difficult emotions and facilitate the healing process. Therefore, it is important to confide in someone trustworthy and discuss what happened. Sharing with family or friends who can provide understanding and support can be immensely helpful during challenging times.

2. While it is natural to desire to avoid distressing memories, completely avoiding places, situations, and people associated with the traumatic event can perpetuate the cycle of trauma. It is important to gradually confront and face the traumatic event without avoidance.

3. Following a traumatic event, one may feel inclined to isolate oneself from others. However, withdrawing from social interactions and becoming lonely only exacerbate the problem. Spending time with others can contribute to a sense of well-being, so maintaining relationships and avoiding excessive solitude can aid in the healing process.

4. Remember that the symptoms and emotions experienced after a traumatic event are entirely normal reactions. Allow yourself time to heal. Understand that the intense feelings will not persist indefinitely. By addressing and engaging with these emotions and thoughts instead of avoiding them, it is possible to overcome them. Practice self-compassion and accept that it may take time for these feelings and thoughts to find balance.

5. Engage in activities that bring you joy and pleasure. Take time to relax, go for walks in beautiful places, and spend time with friends.

6. Avoid using alcohol, drugs, or sedatives as coping mechanisms. They can exacerbate the situation. Seek healthier ways to relax and manage stress.

7. If the symptoms continue to significantly impact your daily life, seek assistance from a mental health professional who specializes in trauma. They can provide guidance and support tailored to your specific needs.

Remember, recovering from trauma is a process that varies for each individual. It's important to be patient with yourself and seek help when needed.

The prefrontal lobe, located behind the forehead, acts as a control center for our willpower. This region is responsible for focus, attention, and decision-making. Just like our body, our brain needs proper care and nutrition to function optimally.

Several factors may contribute to the decrease in willpower:

• Uncertainty in decision-making
• Insufficient sleep
• Fluctuations in daily glucose levels
• Messy environment

In essence, most of the reasons that affect our willpower are related to physical conditions. Lack of rest and irregular sleep patterns can reduce cognitive abilities and impair self-control. Chronic insomnia can have effects similar to poisoning. Therefore, adhering to a recommended sleep cycle between 11 a.m. and 5 a.m. can strengthen our willpower.

In addition, our daily fluctuations in glucose levels can also weaken our willpower. The effect of sugar on our bodies often leads to irritability during periods of hunger. Natural sugar levels are affected, and artificial sugars can promote addictive tendencies similar to intoxication. Long periods without food during the day cause significant decreases in sugar levels, which can lead to impulsive eating without taking into account the nutritional value. The sudden increase in sugar disrupts our willpower, and fluctuating sugar levels can lead to insulin resistance, eventually resulting in irreversible diabetes. Getting rid of the vicious cycle after becoming addicted to sugar requires precise decision-making.

Considering that it makes up 70% of our body, the water level of the body is also an important factor in reducing willpower. Insufficient water intake can lead to problems in the body's conduction system and may even manifest as skin problems. Insufficient water consumption interferes with kidney function, which in turn affects the release of hormones, including stress hormones. This disturbance in hormonal balance can affect both mental and physical well-being. Some sources suggest that the quality of water is as important as the quantity. Choosing alkaline waters with a pH value above 7 can provide better body balance and reduce the risk of infection by creating an unfavorable environment for microorganisms.

An error in any of the above fields can disrupt the entire system. For example, incomplete nutrition negatively affects various aspects. However, if the system is properly nourished and balanced, it will function and develop optimally. The power to maintain control is in our hands. The will is not only psychological or physiological; rather, it encompasses the body, mind, and soul. We are what we eat, and our thoughts shape our reality.

While examining the relationship between the brain and emotions, emotional neuroscience focuses on the formation, development, and effects of emotions, the nervous mechanisms, which are the main components of emotions, the causes, and consequences of these mechanisms on human and animal behavior, with the disciplines of psychology, neuroscience, and biology. In this direction, the basis of emotions, their neural substrates, and their effects on our behavior are examined.

NERVOUS BASIS OF EMOTIONS
Emotional neuroscience studies the areas of the brain involved in emotional processing. At this point, the amygdala is of great importance. The amygdala is primarily responsible for detecting stimuli on the basis of emotional importance, with fear and threat elements. However, the Prefrontal Cortex, which is responsible for higher cognitive functions, is responsible for emotion regulation and evaluation. Emotional experiences occur as a result of the interactions of the responsible regions in the brain.

NERVOUS PROCESSES OF EMOTIONAL REACTIONS
In emotional responses, neurotransmitters (especially serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline) and hormones are of great importance in terms of the intensity of the responses. In addition, the hormones Cortisol and Oxytocin take part in stress responses. Neurotransmitters and hormones are components of fundamental factors in understanding complex interactions, in emotional neuroscience, and in generating emotional responses in this context.

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF EMOTIONS
Emotional Development is defined as the development of the skills to understand, experience, express and manage emotions. In addition to early experiences and environmental factors, genetics also influence it. Thus, it can be seen that the interaction between Emotional Neuroscience and Emotional Development is a result of the interaction between upbringing and genetics.

EMOTION REGULATION SKILL
The goal of emotion regulation is to achieve emotional stability and resilience. Emotion regulation examines how a person controls, regulates and directs emotional responses in cognitive processes (eg, attentional control and reappraisal).

ANIMAL EMOTIONS
Emotional neuroscience examines not only the monopoly of emotions, but also the evolutionary development of emotions, the comparison of human-animal emotional development processes, the universal base of emotions, and the diversity of emotions, with great emphasis on animal emotions.

METHODOLOGY
In Emotional Neuroscience examinations, neural activities are observed and measured with methods such as fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and EEG (electroencephalography).

  Love Bombing is a type of emotional violence that a narcissistic partner applies to his partner. The purpose of this violence is to establish authority over the partner. Love Bombing, which starts with conscious or unconscious manipulations, causes the partner who is being manipulated to feel inadequate and dependent. It doesn't take long for the partner who feels above the clouds at the beginning of the relationship to be pushed down from those clouds.

   A narcissistic partner tries to become the most important person in their partner's life and make self-dependent by surprising their partner with excessive love and attention, extravagant gifts, romantic surprises, and future plans at the beginning of the relationship. Thus, the partner who has been manipulated will think that will never be loved so much again, that will not receive attention.

   The partner who has been manipulated is ignored, blamed, ignored, and made to feel worthless in an unwanted behavior while being bombarded with love as long as the narcissistic partner behaves as wants. The partner who has been manipulated tries to behave the way the partner loved as before, is afraid of doing something wrong, and self-criticism increases, as a result, self-confidence decreases, begins to feel inadequate and dependent, self-esteem decreases, begins to doubt their selves (feelings and intelligence). Over time, it makes psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and panic attacks inevitable. But despite all this, the partner who is being manipulated cannot be separated from the narcissistic partner.

SYMPTOMS OF LOVE BOMBING

1.            A narcissistic partner wants to know everything about his partner down to the smallest detail on the first date. Pretends to be fascinated by the pieces of information. This makes the partner feel very special and important. However, the narcissistic partner's main goal here is to collect information in order to be able to pressure and manipulate the partner with this information in the future.

2.            They tell their whole history from the first date. Thus, the partner feels empathy and closeness toward them.

3.    They constantly expect approval and compliments from their partner. Because, deep down, their self-confidence is quite low.

4.            A narcissistic partner makes very big declarations of love to their partner. He says that his partner is his soul mate, that he is very lucky to be with her, and that no one understands him but her. These words, which will easily affect a person, make the partner feel close to them.

5.            It advances the course of the romantic relationship very quickly. It is likely that said wanted to get married a week after they met. But this is a tactic. This tactic tests whether the partner will break up with them or not.

6.            Always says what their partner wants to hear. This way, the partner feels understood and approved.

7.            Wants to be with their partner constantly. Constantly texts or calls when they can't be next to each other. They want all the time and attention of their partner.

8.            Gives extravagant gifts. In this way, makes the partner feel indebted. This behavior is a tactic aimed at establishing authority in the relationship.

9.            There are intense jealousy problems. Jealous of the time spent with their partner's friends and even with family, causing the partner to feel guilty.

10.          Suddenly, can get all the attention, treat their partner badly, and even pretend that the partner doesn't exist at all. This usually happens when the partner tries to set limits or does something they don't want to do.  

HOW TO PREVENT LOVE BOMBING?

1.            First of all, it should start with learning to recognize Narcissists. Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) persists with a lack of empathy, excessive attention, the need for attention and praise, and excessive self-meaning.

2.            Excessive movements at the beginning of the relationship should be carefully examined. It should be remembered that a behavior made at the beginning of a relationship that is too beautiful to be true, but exaggerated, is probably not real.

3.            Personal emotional shortcomings should be known and acknowledged. Thus, narcissistic partners cannot use these shortcomings as a means of exploitation.

4.            A healthy relationship is possible with respect, empathy, compassion, and healthy communication. Since a narcissist lacks these abilities, these concepts are very important for a healthy relationship.

5.            One should have firm views on reality. So a narcissist can't play with your reality.

   Gestalt Theory, (also known as Gestalt Psychology or Gestaltism) 20. This theory emerged in century Germany with Max Wertheimer's article and focused on perception in cognitive processes. Gestalt Theory focuses on how the mind sees perceived things as a whole. We can sum it up with  Kurt Koffka's sentence  ‘It is something different from the coming together of all the parts that make up it.” Therefore, the whole should not be studied as something formed due to the coming together of parts; it should be studied independently on its own.

   The Gestalt Theory is holistic. An object, its behavior, etc. to break it into pieces breaks the integrity. For example, the word ’sea' consists of the letters s-e-a. But when divided into letters, the meaning of the word breaks down. Instead of looking at the pieces individually, we get meaningfulness when we look at the whole.

   For example, sometimes we may not be able to make sense of more than one complex event in our daily life, but our friend, who we tell the events respectively, can easily make sense when he looks at the whole from the outside with an eye. the digits 1 and 0 can make the number 10 from these two digits. Because the concepts that make the main meaning are the pattern and connection Decoupled between events.

   Gestalt Psychologists have studied how the cognitive process comes together, perceives, and interprets the individual's environment, and have concluded that the mind is interested in the whole rather than the part, even combining elements that are decoupled, making them familiar to itself. This theory consists of principles that explain visual perception.

GESTALT PRINCIPLES

1.                The Principle of Proximity

According to this principle, the mind tends to perceive objects close to each other as a group. For example, in the image above, there are 6 equal rounds on the left and the right. However, although the Decals on the left do not make sense, the decals on the right come together with symmetrical distances and form a triangle.

2.                The Principle of Similarity

The mind tends to make similar elements into a whole/group and give them meaning. Thus, the elements gain perceptual integrity with their colors, sizes, or shapes. Clustering is ensured by the color similarity of the elements, and integrity is ensured by the distances of the elements from each other. In the image above, the black rounds have achieved uniformity with their equal colors and have gained a line form.

3.                Principle of Closure

By this principle, the mind perceives incomplete elements as a whole by completing the missing parts. For example, although there is a space between the elements in the image above, our mind perceives this space in the form of a triangle.

4.                Principle Of Symmetry

According to the Principle of Symmetry, the mind perceives elements in a symmetrical way focused on a center point. It Junks the elements to be symmetrical. Therefore, even if the elements are not symmetrical, the mind tends to perceive them symmetrically. For example, the picture on the side is a representation of the symmetry principle. In this notation, we see square and curved brackets. This is the reason why we see 3 pairs of brackets instead of seeing 6 brackets in the image above.

5.                  The Principle of Common Fate

According to the Principle of Common Destiny, our mind perceives objects in a smooth trajectory, as in the image above.

6.                Principle of Continuity

According to the Continuity Principle, the mind perceives elements that are side by side in the form of a group with perceptual integrity. Even if two different wholes intersect, the groups are considered undivided and continue to be considered separate.

7.                   The Principle of Prägnanz

When the elements come together with the pattern, the mind tends to perceive these elements as a group. This principle is based on the idea of clarity at the heart of Gestalt theory.

8.                 The Principle of Past Experience

According to the Principle of Past Experience, in some cases, the way items are perceived according to our past experiences may change. For example, in the image above, some of us will see a vase, while some of us will see a silhouette of two human faces facing each other.

THERE ARE 4 CRITERIA FOR A CHEMICAL TO BE A NEUROTRANSMITTER:
1. It must be synthesized or contained within the neuron.
2. When the neuron becomes active, it should be released from the neuron and create an action and response in the opposite neuron.
3. The response it creates in the opposite neuron should be proven in the experimental field.
4. There must be a mechanism to ensure that it is retrieved after its mission is over.

SMALL MOLECULAR NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Amines
catecholamines

      Dopamine (DA) Noradrenaline (NA) Adreanline
- Serotonin (5-HT)

Amino Acids
- Glutamate (Glu)
- Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

Acetylcholine (ACh)
• It is the first neurotransmitter found. It is considered on its own as it does not fit into other structural classifications. It plays a key role for the neuromuscular junction and some synapses. It is important for both the central and peripheral nervous systems. memory and learning in the central nervous system; In the peripheral nervous system, it is effective in sending messages to the muscles and glands.
• Linked to Alzheimer's disease.
• Like serotonin and dopamine, it is not transported back into the cell. After use, it is broken down and recycled by the enzyme Acetylcholinesterase.
• Some toxins, such as Botulinum Toxin, prevent the acetylcholinesterase enzyme from working. Failure of acetylcholinesterase to work causes muscle problems. Therefore, Botulinum Toxin has effects such as paralysis, cessation of breathing, cardiac arrest and tremor.
• Acetylcholine has 2 types of receptors. These receptors get their name from their Agonists, which perform the same function.
1. Muscarinic Receptors
- It is found in a mushroom.
- It affects the intracellular signaling mechanism.
- Depending on its type, it sends a warning and stop signal to the cell.

2. Nicotinic Receptor
- It is found in tobacco.
- Ligand-gated ion channel. When acetylcholine binds to this channel, sodium, potassium and calcium ions enter the cell.
- Found in neurons and muscles.

• Cholinergic System and Cognition
- There are 2 types of systems:
1. Sympathetic Nervous System: "Fight or Flight"
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System: “Nutrition and Urea” – “Rest and Digest”
- Cholinergic system is another name for Parasympathetic Nervous System. The main precursor of this system is Acetylcholine. It uses Acetylcholine while preparing the body to feed, rest, reproduce and digest.

Amines

• Dopamine (DA)
- It is necessary for basal ganglia to process.
- Produces intense feelings of pleasure. Excess secretion may cause Schizophrenia, under secretion may cause Parkinson's Disease.
- It is the main neurotransmitter of the Mesocorticolimbic System, which is an important part of the reward system and related to addiction.
- It is produced in two places:
1. Substantia Nigra (SN)
It is in the midbrain.
Responsible for reward and movement.
It is an important location for Parkinson's Disease.
It has a darker structure due to the amount of Melanin hormone in its structure.
2. Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)
It is in the midbrain.
It produces neurons with cognitive function.
It has to do with pleasure, learning, motivation and drug addiction.

• Noradrenaline (NA)
- It is produced in the brain stem.
- A decrease or increase in its level affects the mental state. For example, low levels of noradrenaline can lead to depression.

• Adrenaline
- Produced by the adrenal glands.
- Prepares the organism for immediate action.

• Serotonin (5-HT)
- Affects mental state and social behavior.
- Antidepressants prevent Serotonin reuptake and keep Serotonin in the synapses.

• Catecholamines and Serotonin
- Catecholamines are produced by nervous tissue, brain and adrenal glands. They give the message of "Fight or Flight", which is the message of the Sympathetic Nervous System.

- There are 3 catecholamines:
1. Dopamine (DA)
2. Noradrenaline (NA)
3. Adrenaline

- Although these three catecholamines are produced in the same place, they differ as a result of biosynthesis.

- Biosynthesis
It is the reason for the main difference of catecholamines.
It ensures the survival, growth and development of the organism.
Its raw material is Tyrosine. The first place where Tyrosine emerges as an amino acid is the liver. It is important for healthy brain development.
In catecholamine biosynthesis, tyrosine is first sent to the brain. As a result of biosynthesis, Tyrosine is converted to Dopamine, Dopamine to Noradrenaline, and Noradreanline to Adrenaline.

Amino Acids
• Glutamate (Glu)
- It's a warning. It depolarizes the neuron from which it is released.
- Affects learning and memory.
- Disruption in transmission can lead to Schizophrenia.

• Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
- It is an important neurotransmitter with inhibitory effect.
- Benzodiazepine and similar antidepressant drugs have a calming effect thanks to the inhibition of GABA.
- Picrotoxin drug causes convulsions by closing GABA receptors.